From modern sexism to gender microaggressions: Understanding contemporary forms of sexism and their influence on diverse women.

Lewis, Jioni A.

doi:10.1037/0000059-019

Cited by 30 publications

(39 citation statements)

References 55 publications

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“…It remains unclear whether any female/male differences in the bio-behavioral responses to such threats reflect evolutionary biology [ 24 , 25 ] or gender socialization [ 26 ]. However, in sexist and patriarchal societies, many females experience chronic stress [ 27 ], and gender norms can lead to females holding distorted and negative perceptions and beliefs about their worth and functioning [ 28 ]. As in other preventable forms of discrimination, such as racism, chronic exposure to sexism, especially if experienced throughout development and in prior generations, can initiate neuro-endocrine-immune and behavioral processes that may directly cause anxiety and depression [ 29 , 30 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The interaction of adverse childhood experiences and gender as risk factors for depression and anxiety disorders in US adults: a cross-sectional study

et al. 2021

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Background Exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and being female are distinct risk factors for having a major depressive episode (MDE) or an anxiety disorder (AD) in adulthood, but it is unclear whether these two risk factors are synergistic. The purpose of this study was to determine whether exposure to ACEs and being female are more than additive (synergistic) in their association with MDE and AD in US adults. Methods We pooled cross-sectional survey data in the Midlife in the United States study from two nationally-representative cohorts of English-speaking US adults. Data from the first cohort were collected in 2004–2006 and from the second in 2011–2014. Data from both cohorts included the 12-month prevalence of MDE and AD (generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder) assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form, gender (here termed female and male), and the count of five categories of exposure to ACEs: physical, sexual, or emotional abuse; household alcohol or substance abuse; and parental separation or divorce. Results Of the 5834 survey respondents, 4344 (74.5%) with complete data on ACEs were included in the analysis. Mean (SD) age was 54.1 (13.8) years and 53.9% were female. The prevalences of MDE, AD, and exposure to 3–5 categories of ACEs were 13.7, 10.0, and 12.5%, respectively. After adjusting for covariates (age, race, and current and childhood socioeconomic disadvantage), for those with both risk factors (female and 3–5 ACEs) the prevalence of MDE was 26.9%. This was 10.2% (95% CI: 1.8, 18.5%) higher than the expected prevalence based on the additive associations of the two risk factors. The adjusted prevalence of AD among females with 3–5 ACEs was 21.9%, which was 11.4% (95% CI: 4.0, 18.9%) higher than the expected prevalence. Conclusions For both MDE and AD, there was synergy between the two risk factors of exposure to ACEs and being female. Identification and treatment of MDE and AD may benefit from understanding the mechanisms involved in the synergistic interaction of gender with ACEs.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The interaction of adverse childhood experiences and gender as risk factors for depression and anxiety disorders in US adults: a cross-sectional study

et al. 2021

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“…We define sexism as attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors that reflect, foster, or promote negative or pejorative stereotypes about women (Lewis, 2018;Swim et al, 2004;Swim & Hyers, 2009). Examples of such stereotypes include the notion that women are nice but incompetent; that women are unfit for stereotypically masculine jobs; and that women are weak, emotional, and irrational.…”

Section: Sexism and Rudenessmentioning

confidence: 99%

The “Equal-Opportunity Jerk” Defense: Rudeness Can Obfuscate Gender Bias

2022

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To address sexism, people must first recognize it. In this research, we identified a barrier that makes sexism hard to recognize: rudeness toward men. We found that observers judge a sexist perpetrator as less sexist if he is rude toward men. This occurs because rudeness toward men creates the illusion of gender blindness. We documented this phenomenon in five preregistered studies consisting of online adult participants and adult students from professional schools (total N = 4,663). These attributions are problematic because sexism and rudeness are not mutually exclusive. Men who hold sexist beliefs about women can be—and often are—rude toward other men. These attributions also discourage observers from holding perpetrators accountable for gender bias. Thus, rudeness toward men gives sexist perpetrators plausible deniability. It protects them and prevents the first perceptual step necessary to address sexism.

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“…Microaggressions are often invisible to dominant group members (e.g., Whites, men) (Lewis, 2017;Sue, Capodilupo, et al, 2007). Questions like "Where are you really from?"…”

Section: Microaggression As Covert Discriminationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hypocognition and the Invisibility of Social Privilege

Wu¹,

Dunning²

2020

Advances in Group Processes

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Purpose. Are members of socially dominant groups aware of the privileges they enjoy? We address this question by applying the notion of hypocognition to social privilege. Hypocognition is defined as lacking a rich cognitive or linguistic representation (i.e., a schema) of a concept in question. By social privilege, we refer to advantages that members of dominant social groups enjoy because of their group membership. We argue that such group members are hypocognitive of the privilege they enjoy. They have little cognitive representation of it. As a consequence, their social advantage is invisible to them. Approach. We provide a narrative review of recent empirical work demonstrating and explaining this lack of expertise and knowledge in socially dominant groups (e.g., Whites, men) about discrimination and disadvantage encountered by other groups (e.g., Blacks, Asian Americans, women), relative what members of those other groups know. Findings. This lack of expertise or knowledge is revealed by classic cognitive psychological measures. Relative to members of other groups, social dominant group members generate fewer examples of discrimination that other groups confront, remember fewer instances after being presented a list of them, and are slower to respond when classifying whether these examples are discriminatory. Social Implications. These classic measures of cognitive expertise about social privilege predict social attitude differences between social groups, specifically whether people perceive the existence of social privilege as well as believe discrimination still exists in contemporary society. Hypocognition of social privilege also carries implications for informal interventions (e.g., acting "colorblind") that are popularly discussed.

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From modern sexism to gender microaggressions: Understanding contemporary forms of sexism and their influence on diverse women.

Cited by 30 publications

References 55 publications

The interaction of adverse childhood experiences and gender as risk factors for depression and anxiety disorders in US adults: a cross-sectional study

The interaction of adverse childhood experiences and gender as risk factors for depression and anxiety disorders in US adults: a cross-sectional study

The “Equal-Opportunity Jerk” Defense: Rudeness Can Obfuscate Gender Bias

Hypocognition and the Invisibility of Social Privilege

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