Frequency stability with converter-connected resources delivering fast frequency control

Ancillary services and electric vehicles: An overview from charging clusters and chargers technology perspectives

“…The table also highlights in bold and * the five services that can be provided by EVs and their V1G or V2G chargers. Examples of how frequency services can be provided are as follows: (i) phase-locked loop (PLL) to measure RoCoF and a proportional-based control deploys synthetic inertia [89], (ii) virtual synchronous machine [90], and virtual oscillator control [91] methods to deploy virtual inertia from grid forming inverters [92], (iii) droop-based control for deploying FFR, or FCR [78], and (iv) the AGC which is a proportional integral-based control for deploying FRR or RR [82].…”

“…These services have already been validated in research; however, fast delivery services such as synthetic inertia, virtual inertia, and FFR are not commercially available. The main reason for this is the requirement to deliver such services with response time below 1 s. Of the rest of commercially proven services, due to economic feasibility, only FCR is applied in the field, i.e., droop-based control in Denmark [78]. FRR and RR have only been applied in pilot projects.…”

“…reserve* [58,78] 5. Requesting a power injection with a very fast delivery period, typically less than 2 s, to be maintained for a predefined time span accordingly to the grid-code.…”

Economic Value of Multi-Market Bidding in Nordic Frequency Markets

“…FCR-N participation requires a full response within 150 s with an acceptable initial response delay of up to 10 s [18]. Due to the less strict response time requirements FCR-N can be be delivered with distributed electric vehicles with both unidirectional and vehicle to grid (V2G) chargers [1]. FCR-N must be provided linearly, with full activation for deviations of ±100 mHz, without a dead-band.…”

“…The Transmission System Operators (TSOs) of the Regional Group Nordic (RG-N) synchronous zone, which Eastern Denmark (DK-2) is a part of, have a shared set of grid codes with the purpose of maintaining system stability. The first ancillary service activated for the stability of the power system is frequency containment reserve (FCR), which maintains system frequency close to its nominal value by balancing production and consumption on a seconds time scale [1]. Battery energy storage system (BESS) offering fast power response could replace the frequency regulation requirements of significantly larger generating units with slower ramp rates, as the generation is transitioning towards renewable production [2].…”