Forests and trees for social adaptation to climate variability and change

Abstract

Ecosystems provide important services that can help people adapt to climate variability and change. Recognizing this role of ecosystems, several international and nongovernmental organizations have promoted an ecosystem-based approach to adaptation. We review the scientific literature related to ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) with forests and trees, and highlight five cases in which forests and trees can support adaptation: (1) forests and trees providing goods to local communities facing climatic threats; (2) trees in agricultural fields regulating water, soil, and microclimate for more resilient production; (3) forested watersheds regulating water and protecting soils for reduced climate impacts; (4) forests protecting coastal areas from climate-related threats; and (5) urban forests and trees regulating temperature and water for resilient cities. The literature provides evidence that EBA with forests and trees can reduce social vulnerability to climate hazards; however, uncertainties and knowledge gaps remain, particularly for regulating services in watersheds and coastal areas. Few studies have been undertaken on EBA specifically, but the abundant literature on ecosystem services can be used to fill knowledge gaps. Many studies assess the multiple benefits of ecosystems for human adaptation or well-being, but also recognize trade-offs between ecosystem services. Better understanding is needed of the efficiency, costs, and benefits, and trade-offs of EBA with forests and trees. Pilot projects under implementation could serve as learning sites and existing information could be systematized and revisited with a climate change adaptation lens.  2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. How to cite this article:WIREs Clim Change 2012Change , 3:581-596. doi: 10.1002 INTRODUCTIONC limate change will affect human well-being in many parts of the world 1 and effective adaptation is needed even under the most stringent mitigation * Correspondence to: e. 2 The role of ecosystem goods and services in societal adaptation to climate variability and change has received renewed recognition. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) is an anthropocentric approach, in which ecosystem services are conserved or restored to reduce the vulnerability of people facing climate change threats. 3,4 Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems and can be classified as provisioning services (e.g., timber and firewood), regulating services (e.g., water regulation), and cultural services (e.g., recreation). 5 Examples of EBA include the restoration of mangrove shelterbelts for the protection of coastal settlements against storms and waves and the conservation of forested watersheds for the reduction of flood risk. Many international and nongovernmental conservation and development organizations have promoted EBA by stressing its effectiveness in reducing social vulnerability, its cost-efficiency, and its co-benefits for biodiversity conservation, poverty reduction, and climate change mitigation. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12] However, the ...

Landscape diversity and associated coping strategies during food shortage periods: evidence from the Sudano-Sahelian region of Burkina Faso

“…In the context of low employment opportunities and difficulties in accessing land, many of the rural poor collect forest products for their own use Ros-Tonen and Wiersum 2003;Somorin 2010), or for additional income generation (Angelsen and Wunder 2003;Arnold et al 2011;Egoh et al 2012;Fisher et al 2010;Warner 2000;Yemiru et al 2010). The importance of forest resources in rural communities is particularly significant during food shortage periods (Fisher et al 2010;Pramova et al 2012b;Vinceti et al 2008). Despite this evidence, forest resources are not adequately considered in the poverty alleviation policies of most developing countries (Oksanen and Mersmann 2003), including those in sub-Saharan Africa (McConnell 2008) and are rarely included in adaptation plans and projects (Pramova et al 2012a).…”

Integrating adaptation into REDD+: potential impacts and social return on investment in Setulang, Malinau District, Indonesia

“…Forests, for example, are more sensitive to drought events and fires if they are degraded or logged (Roberts 2000). Crops that are produced through monocultures and in degraded soils are more sensitive to increases in temperature, precipitation, drought and pest outbreaks than crops grown in more complex systems or agroforestry Garrity et al 2010;Pramova et al 2012). Poor sanitation, pollution, and riverbank and watershed degradation increase the severity of floods and the proliferation of bacteria and vectors during heavy precipitation (Cruz et al 2007).…”

“…As seen elsewhere in the world, it is generally the poor and most resource-insecure that depend on forest resources after a disaster (Pramova et al 2012). In Malawi, for example, forests are important for reactive adaptation strategies, particularly for households with no other options, but they do not feature in anticipatory adaptation (Fisher et al 2010).…”

“…Many of these agrarian communities maintain trees on their farms for this purpose. When harvests fail due to climate events, people can sell timber and NTFPs from their farms to supplement their income (Pramova et al 2012).…”

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“…176,177 Natural barriers can act as a defence against climatic and non-climatic events-eg, restoration of mangroves for protecting coastal settlements and conservation of forests to regulate water flow for vulnerable communities. 178,179 EbA is considered to be more cost effective than many hardengineered solutions, and thought to minimise the scope for maladaptation. 155,180 It can be combined with engineered infrastructure or other technological approaches.…”