Ecosystems provide important services that can help people adapt to climate variability and change. Recognizing this role of ecosystems, several international and nongovernmental organizations have promoted an ecosystem-based approach to adaptation. We review the scientific literature related to ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) with forests and trees, and highlight five cases in which forests and trees can support adaptation: (1) forests and trees providing goods to local communities facing climatic threats; (2) trees in agricultural fields regulating water, soil, and microclimate for more resilient production; (3) forested watersheds regulating water and protecting soils for reduced climate impacts; (4) forests protecting coastal areas from climate-related threats; and (5) urban forests and trees regulating temperature and water for resilient cities. The literature provides evidence that EBA with forests and trees can reduce social vulnerability to climate hazards; however, uncertainties and knowledge gaps remain, particularly for regulating services in watersheds and coastal areas. Few studies have been undertaken on EBA specifically, but the abundant literature on ecosystem services can be used to fill knowledge gaps. Many studies assess the multiple benefits of ecosystems for human adaptation or well-being, but also recognize trade-offs between ecosystem services. Better understanding is needed of the efficiency, costs, and benefits, and trade-offs of EBA with forests and trees. Pilot projects under implementation could serve as learning sites and existing information could be systematized and revisited with a climate change adaptation lens. 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. How to cite this article:WIREs Clim Change 2012Change , 3:581-596. doi: 10.1002 INTRODUCTIONC limate change will affect human well-being in many parts of the world 1 and effective adaptation is needed even under the most stringent mitigation * Correspondence to: e. 2 The role of ecosystem goods and services in societal adaptation to climate variability and change has received renewed recognition. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) is an anthropocentric approach, in which ecosystem services are conserved or restored to reduce the vulnerability of people facing climate change threats. 3,4 Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems and can be classified as provisioning services (e.g., timber and firewood), regulating services (e.g., water regulation), and cultural services (e.g., recreation). 5 Examples of EBA include the restoration of mangrove shelterbelts for the protection of coastal settlements against storms and waves and the conservation of forested watersheds for the reduction of flood risk. Many international and nongovernmental conservation and development organizations have promoted EBA by stressing its effectiveness in reducing social vulnerability, its cost-efficiency, and its co-benefits for biodiversity conservation, poverty reduction, and climate change mitigation. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12] However, the ...
Although many activities can jointly contribute to the climate change strategies of adaptation and mitigation, climate policies have generally treated these strategies separately. In recent years, there has been a growing interest shown by practitioners in agriculture, forestry, and landscape management in the links between the two strategies. This review explores the opportunities and trade-offs when managing landscapes for both climate change mitigation and adaptation; different conceptualizations of the links between adaptation and mitigation are highlighted. Under a first conceptualization of 'joint outcomes,' several reviewed studies analyze how activities without climatic objectives deliver joint adaptation and mitigation outcomes. In a second conceptualization of 'unintended side effects,' the focus is on how activities aimed at only one climate objective-either adaptation or mitigation-can deliver outcomes for the other objective. A third conceptualization of 'joint objectives' highlights that associating both adaptation and mitigation objectives in a climate-related activity can influence its outcomes because of multiple possible interactions. The review reveals a diversity of reasons for mainstreaming adaptation and mitigation separately or jointly in landscape management. The three broad conceptualizations of the links between adaptation and mitigation suggest different implications for climate policy mainstreaming and integration.
The extent to which ecosystem services have been considered in the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) and the proposed adaptation projects is assessed. By August 2010, 44 least developed countries had prepared their NAPAs in response to climate change. The NAPAs constitute a starting point for planning adaptation nationally and sub-nationally, but need to be evaluated and improved as new knowledge emerges. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is an emerging approach that recognizes that ecosystem services play an important role in reducing people's vulnerability to climate change. The importance of ecosystem services is acknowledged in more than 50% of the NAPAs. Approximately 22% of the proposed projects include ecosystem activities for social well-being or adaptation, with most of them in support of other adaptation measures (e.g. infrastructure). These projects deal mainly with regulating services (soil rehabilitation, erosion control and water regulation) and provisioning services (food, fibre and fuel wood). They also have the potential to promote integrative and cross-sectoral adaptation, as many of them consider multiple ecosystem services and beneficiary sectors. However, more technical, political and financial support is needed to foster the role of ecosystem services in adaptation.Keywords: adaptation; ecosystem-based adaptation; ecosystem services; least-developed countries; National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) La mesure dans laquelle les services écosystémiques ont été considérés dans les programmes d'action nationaux d'adaptation (PANA) et les projets d'adaptation proposés est évaluée. En août 2010, 44 des pays les moins avancés avaient préparé leurs PANA, en réponse au changement climatique. Les PANA constituent un point de départ pour la planification de l'adaptation à l'échelle nationale et sous-nationale, mais doivent être évaluées et améliorées en fonction de l'évolution des connaissances. L'adaptation fondée sur les écosystèmes (EbA) est une approche émergente qui reconnaît que les services écosystémiques jouent un rôle important dans la réduction de la vulnérabilité des populations au changement climatique. L'importance des services écosystémiques est reconnu dans plus de 50% des PANA. Environ 22% des projets proposés comprennent des activités écosystémiques liées au bien-être social ou à l'adaptation, et la plupart d'entre eux proposent d'autres mesures d'adaptation (par exemple dans l'infrastructure). Ces projets portent principalement sur les services de régulation (réhabilitation des sols, lutte contre l'érosion et régulation de l'eau) et les services d'approvisionnement (alimentation, fibres et bois de chauffage). Ces projets ont le potentiel de promouvoir une adaptation intégrée et transversale, car beaucoup d'entre eux couvrent les multiples services écosystémiques et secteurs bénéficiaires. Cependant, un soutien plus technique, politique et financier est nécessaire pour favoriser le rôle des services écosystémiques dans l'adaptation.
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