Food first! Theorising assets and actors in agroforestry: risk evaders, opportunity seekers and ‘the food imperative’ in sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

Despite widely recognised and well-established benefits, it is difficult to adopt the multifunctional activity of agroforestry into the landscape and lifeworld of small-scale agriculture, if poverty, itself a main reason for adopting agroforestry, stands in its way. Based on participant observations and interviews with small-scale farmers in western Kenya, we explore and theorise agroforestry adoption as a process of socio-ecological and socio-technological change. Proceeding from sustainability science and a modified livelihoods approach we use grounded theory in 'narrative walks' to analyse adoption and non-adoption of agroforestry in a setting where farmers continuously interpret, adjust to and invest in their environment. Given the diversity and complexity of such livelihoods, the analysis is structured around reproductive and productive chains, strategies and practices defined by uncertainty and risk, and conflicting interests. Findings indicate that food secure farmers may act as entrepreneurially inclined 'opportunity seekers' and venture into agroforestry, whereas the 'food imperative'(alongside the 'health imperative') makes it more difficult for agroforestry to take root among the 'poorest of the poor' who act as 'risk evaders'. Hence, agroforestry adoption must be understood within an integrated humanenvironment frame recognising the socio-ecological relations of technology adoption and the wider political aspects and power structures of food security.

The role of knowledge, attitudes and perceptions in the uptake of agricultural and agroforestry innovations among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa

“…Although the results suggest that preferences and resource endowments are the most common factors included in the studies, they conclude that factors in the risk, biophysical and resource endowments categories are most likely to significantly influence adoption behaviour (Pattanayak et al 2003). The importance of risk and uncertainty in the adoption of agroforestry has also been demonstrated by Jerneck and Olsson (2014) for small-scale farmers in western Kenya. In this study, 'narrative walks' were employed to analyse reasons for adoption and non-adoption.…”

“…Their findings showed that agroforestry fails to be taken up by the 'poorest of the poor', whose main priority is to get food on the table and who cannot afford taking risks by investing time and labour in new technologies which have uncertain benefits in the long term. In contrast, farmers who enjoy higher levels of food security are more likely to be 'opportunity seekers' and might be more inclined to venture into agroforestry (Jerneck and Olsson 2014).…”

Climate-smart agriculture global research agenda: scientific basis for action

“…Fundamentally, an existing lack of food security and farmers' concerns about poor health will counteract incentives to their adoption of new farming technology [149,150]. Although many farmers believe climate risk is real, they are less likely to believe it is caused by human behaviour.…”

“…Trees and forests buffer microclimates, regulate water quality and flows, store C and provide habitat for plants and animals in protected areas and corridors [248,254,255]. When landscapes are managed to contain a mosaic of forestry and agroforestry ecosystems, the diversification of food, feed and timber production, income sources, and markets promotes greater resilience to environmental uncertainty [149,256]. REDD + programmes to pay developing countries for conservation and sustainable use of forests have evolved over the past decade toward greater attention on (1) increased interactions between institutional networks and (2) achieving reduced GHG emissions along with improvement of livelihoods of local communities and biodiversity conservation [257].…”

Local power: exploring the motivations of mayors and key success factors for local municipalities to go 100% renewable energy

“…The information gathered in these informal conversations as well as the impressions from the site visits were secured in field notes. These informal processes can be called 'narrative walks' , which are a way of engaging in exploratory research [26]. Here, a researcher can get in close contact with the object of study.…”