“…Numerous experiments on zero pressure gradient surface roughness flows have been performed on both low speed [Nikuradse (1933), Corrsin and Kistler (1955), Perry et al (1969), Simpson (1973), Antonia and Wood (1975), and Schlichting (2003)], and high speed flows [Goddard (1959) and Berg (1979), Fan and Bowersox (1999), Latin and Bowersox (2000), and Pritchett and Bowersox (2001)]. In summary for fully rough boundary layer flows the basic trends show an increase of the turbulence intensities by as much as 30 -40% and an increase skin friction by as much as a factor of 2, clearly representing an increase in the turbulent production mechanisms and an alteration of the turbulent dissipation.…”