First two months of pregnancy—critical time for preterm delivery and low birthweight caused by adverse effects of coal combustion toxics

Air Pollution and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome

“…The highest ambient air pollution concentrations during the first trimester were significantly associated with elevated relative risks of PTB. These results are generally consistent with the findings from China, South Korea, the United States, Canada, and the Czech Republic (Bobak 2000;Liu et al, 2003;Mohorovic 2004;Ritz et al, 2000;Tsai et al, 2003;Woodruff et al, 2003;Xu et al, 1995;Yang et al, 2002a;Yang et al, 2002bYang et al, 2004;Leem et al, 2006). These studies reported significant associations between air pollution and PTB during early pregnancy (i.e., first or second month, first trimester) (Mohorovic 2004;Ritz et al, 2000), late pregnancy (i.e., last month, last trimester, 7 days or 6 weeks before birth) Xu et al, 1995), or during both early and late pregnancies (Bobak 2000).…”

“…An association of higher exposure to SO 2 and PTB was reported in seven (Bobak, 2000;Huynh et al, 2006;Leem et al, 2006;Liu et al, 2003;Mohorovic, 2004;Sagiv et al, 2005;Xu et al, 1995) of the eight studies. The association of NO 2 exposure and PTB was explored in 10 studies (Bobak, 2000;Gehring et al, 2011;Jalaludin et al, 2007;Leem et al, 2006;Liu et al, 2003;Llop et al 2010;Maroziene and Grazuleviciene, 2002;Ritz et al,2000Ritz et al, , 2007Ritz et al, , 2011 (Table 2).…”

Air Pollution Exposure During Pregnancy and Reproductive Outcomes

“…Reduced total glutathione, an indicator of maternal antioxidant reserves, decreased, whereas cell-damaging lipid peroxide levels increased. Mohoroviz found similar results for methemoglobin in a polluted area of Croatia (Mohorovic, 2004). These results suggest that maternal exposure to environmental oxidants can increase the risk of pregnancy complications through stimulation of the formation methemoglobin, which may lead to hypoxia and hypoxemia in pregnant women and has an important influence on maternal health as well as placental and fetal development.…”

“…third trimester or last weeks before birth. On the contrary, in a study in Croatia in the vicinity of a coal power plant, Mohorovic (2004) found the first two months of pregnancy as the critical time for preterm delivery in relation with SO 2 exposure. Carbon monoxide (CO) exposure has also been an object of analysis in relation with preterm birth.…”

Ambient Air Pollution and Reproductive Health

“…PM can also activate inflammatory cells to generate of oxidative stressors such as reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species (Tao et al 2003). Consequently, oxidative stress can directly lead to DNA damage and may affect the embryo at its earlier stage of growth (Mohorovic 2004;Risom et al 2005). Moreover, oxidative stress may also influence sperm motility and concentration, which is relevant for male reproductive health (Agarwal et al 2006).…”