“…Additionally, VA can inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-33 by down-regulating caspase-1 and NF-κB pathways [45][46][47] in mice or mouse peritoneal macrophages and mast cells. FA has also been reported to attenuate both oxidative stress and inflammation potentially by suppressing the production of free radicals (ROS and NO in rats, rat intestinal mucosal IEC-6 cell, or murine macrophages) [48][49][50], enhancing Nrf2 expression and down-stream antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT in rats or swiss albino mice) [48,51], and inhibiting the activation of proinflammatory proteins (p38 and IκB in HUVEC cells) [52] and cytokines production, such as IL-18 in HUVEC cells [52], IL-1β in mice [53], IL-6 in obese rats [54], and TNF-α in mice [53]. However, both VA and FA showed a limited effect on the activation of MAPK pathway and production of inflammatory cytokines, such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and TNF-α in a high-fat diet-induced mouse model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease [41].…”