Factors affecting the evolution of development strategies in parasitoid wasps: the importance of functional constraints and incorporating complexity

Abstract

Parasitoid wasps have long been considered as model organisms for examining optimal resource allocation to different fitness functions, such as body size and development time. Unlike insect predators, which may need to consume many prey items to attain maturity, parasitoids generally rely on a limited amount of resources that are obtained from a single source (the host). This review discusses a range of ecophysiological constraints that affect host quality and concomitantly the evolution of development strategies in parasitoids. Two macroevolutionary differences in host usage strategies (idiobiosis, koinobiosis) are initially described. Over many years, particular attention has been paid in examining a range of quantitative host attributes such as size, age, or stage, as these affect idiobiont and koinobiont parasitoid development. Parasitoids and their hosts, however, constitute only a small part of an ecological community. Consequently, host quality may be affected by a broad range of factors that may operate over variable spatial and temporal scales. Intimate factors include aggressive competition with other parasitoids and pathogens for access to host resources, whereas less intimate factors include the effects of toxic plant compounds (allelochemicals) on parasitoid performance as mediated through primary and/or secondary hosts. It is suggested that future experiments should increase the levels of trophic complexity as these influence the evolution of life history and development strategies in parasitoids. This includes integration of a suite of direct and indirect mechanisms, including biological processes occurring in different ecological realms, such as above-ground and belowground interactions.

The effect of different dietary sugars and honey on longevity and fecundity in two hyperparasitoid wasps

“…Host blood is often important in the production of large, yolky 'anhydropic' eggs (Jervis and Kidd, 1986;Bernstein and Jervis, 2006;Harvey, 2008) that are characteristically produced by many 'idiobiont' ectoparasitoids, i.e. parasitoids that attack non-feeding or non-growing host stages or arrest host development prior to oviposition (Godfray, 1994;Harvey, 2005;Jervis and Ferns, 2011). In contrast, most endoparasitoids that develop inside the host are 'koinobionts' i.e.…”

“…In contrast, most endoparasitoids that develop inside the host are 'koinobionts' i.e. parasitoids that allow the host to continue feeding and growing during parasitism (Godfray, 1994;Harvey, 2005). In koinobionts adult female wasps do not host-feed, and invest very little protein into their tiny 'hydropic' eggs.…”

Adequação do hospedeiro e parâmetros relacionados à aptidão de Cotesia glomerata L. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) em diferentes ínstares de Ascia monuste orseis Godart (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

“…Os parasitoides são extremamente especializados nas relações com seus hospedeiros e, considerando que seus descendentes se desenvolvem sobre um único hospedeiro, estando restritos aos nutrientes deste, as fêmeas apresentam elevada capacidade de avaliar a adequabilidade do hospedeiro, uma vez que esse fator pode afetar profundamente o desempenho da sua prole (Harvey, 2005;Harvey et al, 2012). Essa avaliação permite ao parasitoide se defender do sistema imunológico e de toxinas deletérias do hospedeiro, competir com outros parasitoides e avaliar a adequabilidade nutricional do hospedeiro Iwantsch, 1980;Lavine;Strand, 2002).…”

Development of Mamestra brassicae and its solitary endoparasitoid Microplitis mediator on two populations of the invasive weed Bunias orientalis

“…It has also been reported that parasitoids in the third trophic level may also be affected by the quality of the food plant as mediated through the herbivore host (Harvey 2005;Ode 2006). These effects can be positive or negative.…”

“…For instance, several studies have reported that the internal immune defences of herbivores are traded off against detoxification when these herbivores feed on more toxic plant species or genotypes, making these herbivores more susceptible to endoparasitoids (Bukovinszky et al 2009;Smilanich et al 2009). Alternatively, the growth, survival, and fitness of parasitoids may be affected by plant toxins ingested by the host (Barbosa et al 1986(Barbosa et al , 1991Harvey 2005;Harvey et al 2005;Ode 2006;Gols et al 2008). These effects may be direct, e.g., through exposure of parasitoid larvae to allelochemicals stored in host tissues; or indirect, e.g., when the host itself performs badly on certain diets.…”