Extracellular vesicles in cardiovascular disease: Biological functions and therapeutic implications

Advances in the Application of Exosomes Identification Using Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy for the Early Detection of Cancers

“…Exosomes are found in a variety of body fluids, carry characteristic markers and play a wide range of functions ( Han et al, 2021b ; Cheng et al, 2021 ; Peng et al, 2021 ). The study of exosomes has great potential for new diagnostic and medical translational applications, yet no significant breakthroughs have been achieved to date.…”

“…The exosome was originally isolated from sheep reticulocytes as a small vesicle with the characteristics of the reticulocyte cytosol ( Trams et al, 1981 ; Pan et al, 1985 ; Grasso et al, 1990 ). Researchers only considered it to be a “waste product” of erythrocyte maturation, and as exosomes have been studied more closely, it has been confirmed that exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by the cell in the form of cytosol ( Han et al, 2021b ; Clark et al, 2021 ; Isaac et al, 2021 ). Exosomes are multi-vesicular endosomes that originate from the endocytic system and are formed through four processes: outgrowth, invagination, multivesicular body formation and secretion, and are spherical, flat or cup-shaped vesicles with a diameter of 30–150 nm ( Spilak et al, 2021 ; Staubach et al, 2021 ; Sun et al, 2021 ).…”

Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Diseases: Diagnosis and Therapy

“…Recently, with the continuous research on extracellular vesicles (EVs), the roles of EVs in CVDs have been gradually recognized. Therefore, systematic research on EVs is necessary for the clinical diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy development in CVDs ( Chong et al, 2019 ; Han et al, 2021 ). EVs exist in blood, urine, saliva, amniotic fluid, malignant ascites, breast milk, and so on ( Jansen et al, 2017 ), which are nano-sized, enclosed by a lipid bilayer, and secreted by virtually all cell types, including exosomes, microvesicles (MVs) and apoptotic bodies ( Fu et al, 2020 ).…”

Reporter Systems for Assessments of Extracellular Vesicle Transfer

“…Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer membrane-enclosed structures released by most if not all cell types in physiological and pathological environments. They are classified into subtypes, including exosomes, ectosomes, and apoptotic bodies, based on the origin of biogenesis, and have different yet overlapping sizes and compositions ( 1 – 6 ). Exosomes (50–150 nm) are formed as intraluminal vesicles of endosomes and released into extracellular space upon endosome and cell membrane fusion, whereas ectosomes (0.1–1 μm) bud out directly from the plasma membrane ( 6 , 7 ).…”

“…They are classified into subtypes, including exosomes, ectosomes, and apoptotic bodies, based on the origin of biogenesis, and have different yet overlapping sizes and compositions ( 1 – 6 ). Exosomes (50–150 nm) are formed as intraluminal vesicles of endosomes and released into extracellular space upon endosome and cell membrane fusion, whereas ectosomes (0.1–1 μm) bud out directly from the plasma membrane ( 6 , 7 ). Apoptotic bodies (50–5000 nm), on the other hand, dislodge from dying and disintegrating cells ( 8 , 9 ).…”