External threat environments and individual bias against female leaders

Abstract

We argue that a country's international security context influences individual bias against female leaders and propose three mechanisms: by increasing individual demand for defense, by shaping individual ideological orientations, and by increasing society's level of militarization. Using survey data of more than 200,000 individuals in 84 countries, we show the more hostile the country's security environment, the more individuals are likely to agree that men make better political leaders than do women. We also find support for some of our proposed mechanisms and that the effect of security environments is greater for men than women. Our study presents the first cross-national evidence that the country's international security environment correlates with bias against women leaders.

The Impact of Perceived CSR on Employees’ Pro-Environmental Behaviors: The Mediating Effects of Environmental Consciousness and Environmental Commitment

“…The social exchange theory [67] is implemented to provide the empirical evidences on the effect of perceived CSR on employees' PEB. This is due to the employees' reciprocation for the organizations' policies and practices concerning environmental preservation [22,28]. The mediators of Econ and Ecom also support the social exchange theory [67], as employees working in organizations devoted to CSR demonstrate a high level of Econ and exhibit pro-environmental behavior [19].…”

“…We found support for the positive relationship between perceived CSR and Econ amongst employees (H2). This can be explained by employees having a better sense of belonging affecting their mindset and behaviour towards their company due to a strong positive perception of their firm's CSR commitment and activities [28,77,103]. Therefore, perceived CSR is positively related to an individual's Econ [104].…”

“…Kim and Moon [27] defined PEB as a series of their attitudes and behaviors towards the environment and their inclination to improve environmental degradation, lessen the negative impact of human activities on nature, and achieve environmental sustainability. Examples of PEB in the workplace include actions such as conserving energy in the office, saving paper through double-sided printing, recycling, and producing environmentally friendly ideas for achieving sustainable performance [19,28,29].…”

“…Findings of some of the studies reported that organizations displaying their responsibility towards the environment through their CSR policies and activities can be mirrored by their employees, who, in turn, demonstrate their eco-mindedness through their corresponding actions for environmental sustainability [13,28,51]. In the last decade, studies on CSR have mainly focused on the sustainability behaviors of large-scale businesses [52].…”

The Curious Case of Theresa May and the Public That Did Not Rally: Gendered Reactions to Terrorist Attacks Can Cause Slumps Not Bumps

“…In fact, a Gender-Revised Rally Framework suggests that women executives might not only fail to receive a boost in approval following a major terrorist incident but could experience a decline in support. This expectation is based on several factors, including a public preference for men's political leadership in general and in times of security threat or active military action in particular (Barnes and O'Brien 2018;Holman, Merolla, and Zechmeister 2011;Kim and Kang 2021;Ortbals and Poloni-Staudinger 2018b). Such inclinations lead the public to hold women leaders to higher standards (Bauer 2017;2020b), as they do not fit the executive leader prototype.…”