Exercise Dependence in Amateur Competitors and Non-Competitor Recreational Exercisers

Abstract

Research has demonstrated that exercising has health promoting effects. However, if habitual sporting activities become uncontrollable, detrimental health consequences can occur among a minority of individuals. Furthermore, such obligatory exercise can cause serious decline in school/work productivity, as well as financial problems, relationship problems, and poor psychological and physical wellbeing. The aim of the present study was to compare characteristics related to exercise dependence (ED) between recreational exercisers and amateur competitors. A total of 1439 participants (41.4 % male; mean age = 32 years) completed a battery of measures including the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS), SCOFF, Well-Being Questionnaire, and Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale. Results showed that 6.5 % of participants identified themselves as amateur competitive exercisers. Amateur competitors exercised significantly more (6.4 h) than non-competitor recreational exercisers (4.6 h). Amateur competitors also scored significantly higher on the EDS. Significant effects were found between competing and self-esteem concerning ED. Results showed that both features had a strong effect on ED. The study highlights the connection between ED symptoms and lower self-esteem and/or lower levels of subjective wellbeing. These influential factors are worth considering when planning preventive interventions addressing ED for both amateur competitors and non-competitive recreational athletes as well as when promoting sport as a healthy activity.

Relating Compulsivity and Impulsivity With Severity of Behavioral Addictions: A Dynamic Interpretation of Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Findings

“…Participants were recruited from one semi-professional club for triathlon training and 17 different sports centers representative for Budapest (68,69). University students assisted with data collection, which resulted in 4,589 people signing the informed consent and they were all sent the study link.…”

Exercise addiction and dependence.

“…For example, Costa et al (2015) found the interaction between high levels of exercise identity and high social physique anxiety to contribute to 36% variation in exercise dependence symptoms in female competitive runners. Also, recent observational studies have found that exercise dependence symptoms are negatively correlated with self-esteem (e.g., Bruno et al, 2014;Menczel et al, 2017). Although this relationship is evident, future research is needed to determine the involvement of selfesteem in exercise dependence etiology.…”

“…Individuals who are most susceptible to addiction are also at risk for exercise dependence. The exercise dependence literature indicates that individuals who are high in neuroticism (Hausenblas & Giacobbi, 2004), narcissism (Bruno et al, 2014), extraversion (Hausenblas & Giacobbi, 2004), and perfectionism (Costa, Coppolino, & Oliva, 2016;Hill, Robson, & Stamp, 2015;Lichtenstein, Christiansen, Elklit, Bilenberg, & Støving, 2014) and are low in agreeableness (Hausenblas & Giacobbi, 2004) and self-esteem (Bruno et al, 2014;Menczel et al, 2017) are more susceptible to developing exercise dependence than are those with the opposite levels of these traits. It is also likely that differences in brain structures and neurological agents contribute to the etiology of exercise dependence.…”

Associations between Self-Esteem, Psychological Stress, and the Risk of Exercise Dependence

“…If the focus on exercise or the amount of exercise exceeds a certain level, the risk of physical overload and injury and/or psychological and social difficulties increase, as a result of great physiological and psychological demands on the individual, as well as conflicting time demands within other domains of daily life [ 1 , 4 , 30 ], Exactly how much exercise constitutes an excessive amount seems to vary between individuals, depending on the purpose of training [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], the individual’s age, their total stress in life [ 34 , 35 , 36 ], their gender [ 35 , 37 ], culture [ 38 , 39 ], exercise experience symptoms [ 40 ], and the context the activity is performed within [ 41 , 42 ]. Studies on larger populations have found that more than six hours’ weekly exercise increases the risk of exercise dependence [ 10 , 32 ], with a particular risk being associated with exercise levels above 10 to 12 h per week [ 8 , 36 , 43 ].…”

“…As with both substance abuse [ 2 ] and eating disorders [ 10 ], people with low self-esteem are at higher risk of developing unhealthy motives for and addiction to exercise [ 51 ]. People who largely build their identity around being an athlete or exerciser, exercising more, and spending more time on exercise are also more vulnerable to developing an addiction to exercise [ 31 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. In particular, this seems to be the case for those who experience low global self-esteem [ 55 ].…”