Exemplification effects: responses to perceptions of risk

Abstract

Exemplification theory asserts that message components that are iconic and emotionally arousing are easily accessed, and are therefore relied upon when making subsequent behavioral decisions. A reanalysis of data from three studies collected at different times, unrelated experimental stimuli (terrorism, food ingredients, and bed bugs), different media (visual and print), varying geographic locations, different experimental conditions (laboratory and online), and diverse participants suggests that these processes work differently for men and women. Results suggest that the medium through which an exemplar is presented and/or experienced may be fairly inconsequential, but there are underlying processes which may determine the extent to which individuals will modify behavioral intentions related to risks. After witnessing exemplified portrayals, women were more likely than men to express a desire to modify behavior, perceive themselves as more susceptible to the risk, and perceive the risk as being more severe across the studies. The findings are discussed in terms of directions for future research and implications for risk communication practitioners.

Stars—They’re Sick Like Us! The Effects of a Celebrity Exemplar on COVID-19-Related Risk Cognitions, Emotions, and Preventative Behavioral Intentions

“…Theories of health psychology typically draw a distinction between two distinct and negatively related cognitive risk estimates of risk: perceptions of personal susceptibility and severity of the hazard (El-Toukhy, 2015). Exemplification research shows that exposure to exemplars can increase both types of risk perceptions related to a range of threats including severe weather (Westerman et al, 2009), food-borne illness (Aust & Zillmann, 1996), unhealthy snacks (Ahn, 2018), terrorism, bed bugs, and pink slime (Spence et al, 2017).…”

“…Tom Hanks was not first person to be diagnosed with COVID-19, and at the time of his announcement, descriptions of ordinary people’s experiences with the virus were increasingly common. According to exemplification theory, any mediated exemplar of a health crisis could potentially increase public perception of risk (e.g., Spence et al, 2017). But if celebrities such as Tom Hanks possess a unique ability to influence others, then his account of a COVID-19 experience should be more influential than an identical exemplar featuring an ordinary person, even when involvement is accounted for.…”

Anticipatory Traumatic Reaction: Outcomes Arising From Secondary Exposure to Disasters and Large-Scale Threats

“…Given that short-term exposure to media has been shown to evoke negative psychological reactions, we proposed that cumulative exposure to this type of material might generate a qualitatively different form of distress, anchored in negative anticipation of large-scale trauma or disasters. Our contention was also based on research identifying exemplification effects from media exposure, whereby people may overestimate prevalence and risk of events made salient in media reports and discussions (Spence et al, 2017).…”

“…Given the propensity for news reports associated with large-scale negative events or threats (such as natural disasters, terrorist attacks, etc.) to include numerous scenes or detailed descriptions of human suffering and to recap similar recent events (Jain, 2010; Kaplan, 2008), exemplification theory predicts that news consumers may be inclined to both overestimate the prevalence of similar events and also perceive an inflated risk to self and others (Spence et al, 2017). Furthermore, studies suggest that the exemplification effects may persist or even strengthen over time (Gibson & Zillmann, 1994).…”

“…If the types of symptoms previously identified in the literature cannot be attributed to PTSD (as indicated by the DSM-5 ), perhaps another construct can better account for these. Given that brief reports of large-scale threats and violence may trigger perceptions of threat and other negative reactions (Hopwood & Schutte, 2017), and that distress-evoking reports may remain salient and generate risk perception (Spence et al, 2017), we propose that longer term exposure to this type of material, either via media or social discussions, may produce a qualitatively different type of reaction for some people. We contend that this form of distress is rooted in uncertainty and the fear of future events that may manifest as feelings of vulnerability, anger, or a need to protect and defend.…”