Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries

Ciez, Rebecca E.; Whitacre, Jay

doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0222-5

Cited by 566 publications

(358 citation statements)

References 38 publications

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“…The lithium-ion battery has a cathode material LiNi 1/3 Mn 1/3 Co 1/3 O 2 (NMC 111), as indicated by the battery manufacturer. We use the methods detailed by Ellingsen et al [23] and Ciez and Whitacre [24] to determine the environmental impacts of battery production and recycling. Manufacturing burdens are estimated from the ecoinvent process electric bicycle production, which is used as a proxy for the energy requirements to manufacture and assemble the scooter from components.…”

Section: Materials and Manufacturingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters

Hollingsworth

Copeland

Johnson

2019

Environ. Res. Lett.

280

183

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Shared stand-up electric scooters are now offered in many cities as an option for short-term rental, and marketed for short-distance travel. Using life cycle assessment, we quantify the total environmental impacts of this mobility option associated with global warming, acidification, eutrophication, and respiratory impacts. We find that environmental burdens associated with charging the e-scooter are small relative to materials and manufacturing burdens of the e-scooters and the impacts associated with transporting the scooters to overnight charging stations. The results of a Monte Carlo analysis show an average value of life cycle global warming impacts of 202 g CO 2 -eq/passenger-mile, driven by materials and manufacturing (50%), followed by daily collection for charging (43% of impact). We illustrate the potential to reduce life cycle global warming impacts through improved scooter collection and charging approaches, including the use of fuel-efficient vehicles for collection (yielding 177 g CO 2 -eq/passenger-mile), limiting scooter collection to those with a low battery state of charge (164 g CO 2 -eq/passenger-mile), and reducing the driving distance per scooter for e-scooter collection and distribution (147 g CO 2 -eq/passenger-mile). The results prove to be highly sensitive to e-scooter lifetime; ensuring that the shared e-scooters are used for two years decreases the average life cycle emissions to 141 g CO 2 -eq/passenger-mile. Under our Base Case assumptions, we find that the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions associated with e-scooter use is higher in 65% of our Monte Carlo simulations than the suite of modes of transportation that are displaced. This likelihood drops to 35%-50% under our improved and efficient e-scooter collection processes and only 4% when we assume two-year e-scooter lifetimes. When e-scooter usage replaces average personal automobile travel, we nearly universally realize a net reduction in environmental impacts.

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Section: Materials and Manufacturingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters

Hollingsworth

Copeland

Johnson

2019

Environ. Res. Lett.

280

183

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“…To satisfy the social demand of energy storage devices, scientific and technological breakthroughs are expected to urge their performance beyond current Li-ion batteries (LIBs). [1][2][3][4][5] Rechargeable metalgas batteries are regarded as a potential candidate for future energy storage system, owing to their remarkable specific energy density in theory. [5][6][7][8][9] Generally speaking, they are assembled from a metal anode including Li, Mg, and Al, [5,7,10] and a gas cathode, such as O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , SO 2 , CO, or their mixtures.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Realizing Interfacial Electronic Interaction within ZnS Quantum Dots/N‐rGO Heterostructures for Efficient Li–CO₂ Batteries

Wang

Xie

You

et al. 2019

Advanced Energy Materials

113

111

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With high theoretical energy density, rechargeable metal–gas batteries (e.g., Li–CO2 battery) are considered as one of the most promising energy storage devices. However, their practical applications are hindered by the sluggish reaction kinetics and discharge product accumulation during battery cycling. Currently, the solutions focus on exploration of new catalysts while the thorough understanding of their underlying mechanisms is often ignored. Herein, the interfacial electronic interaction within rationally designed catalysts, ZnS quantum dots/nitrogen‐doped reduced graphene oxide (ZnS QDs/N‐rGO) heterostructures, and their effects on transformation and deposition of discharge products in the Li–CO2 battery are revealed. In this work, the interfacial interaction can both enhance the catalytic activities of ZnS QDs/N‐rGO heterostructures and induce the nucleation of discharge products to form a homogeneous Li2CO3/C film with excellent electronic transmission and high electrochemical activities. When the batteries cycle within a cutoff specific capacity of 1000 mAh g−1 at a current density of 400 mA g−1, the cycling performance of the Li–CO2 battery using a ZnS QDs/N‐rGO cathode is over 3 and 9 times than those coupled with a ZnS nanosheets (NST)/N‐rGO cathode and a N‐rGO cathode, respectively. This work provides comprehensive understandings on designing catalysts for Li–CO2 batteries as well as other rechargeable metal–gas batteries.

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“…For example, GWP increases by 3% from 3.2 to 3.3 kg CO 2 e/kg LCE. This translates to an increase of 0.14 to 0.16 kg CO 2 e/kWh of cathode material, assuming a nickel cobalt aluminum or manganese cathode precursor and a cathode energy density of 0.25 to 0.27 kWh/kg (Ciez & Whitacre, ). Changes to water, toxics and particulate matter were larger than GWP, increasing by 11, 12, and 15%, respectively.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For large format LIBs, widely expected to drive demand for lithium in the future, coprecipitation of lithium–nickel cathode materials combined with relithiation, sometimes called direct cathode recovery, is a promising pathway. Ciez and Whitacre () recently examined the environmental impacts and costs of recycling processes for LIBs including resynthesis of cathodes through direct cathode recovery at high‐cathode recovery rates (Ciez & Whitacre, ). The authors found limited to insignificant benefits for battery GHG emissions from cathode recycling through hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical processes.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…To the extent batteries could be employed in secondary applications, batteries may remain in service longer. The value of recovered materials from recycled batteries may also be too low to motivate sufficient development of recycling infrastructure or to compete economically with second‐life applications (Ambrose, Gershenson, Gershenson, & Kammen, ; Ciez & Whitacre, ).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Understanding the future of lithium: Part 2, temporally and spatially resolved life‐cycle assessment modeling

Ambrose

Kendall

2019

J of Industrial Ecology

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An array of emerging technologies, from electric vehicles to renewable energy systems, relies on large-format lithium ion batteries (LIBs). LIBs are a critical enabler of clean energy technologies commonly associated with air pollution and greenhouse gas mitigation strategies. However, LIBs require lithium, and expanding the supply of lithium requires new lithium production capacity, which, in turn, changes the environmental impacts associated with lithium production since different resource types and ore qualities will be exploited. A question of interest is whether this will lead to significant changes in the environmental impacts of primary lithium over time. Part one of this two-part article series describes the development of a novel resource production model that predicts future lithium demand and production characteristics (e.g., timing, location, and ore type). In this article, part two, the forecast is coupled with anticipatory life-cycle assessment (LCA) modeling to estimate the environmental impacts of producing battery-grade lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) each year between 2018 and 2100.The result is a normalized life-cycle impact intensity for LCE that reflects the changing resource type, quantity, and region of production. Sustained growth in lithium demands through 2100 necessitates extraction of lower grade resources and mineral deposits, especially after 2050.Despite the reliance on lower grade resources and differences in impact intensity for LCE production from each deposit, the LCA results show only small to modest increases in impact, for example, carbon intensity increases from 3.2 kg CO 2 e/kg LCE in 2020 to 3.3 kg CO 2 e/kg LCE in 2100.

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Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries

Cited by 566 publications

References 38 publications

Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters

Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters

Realizing Interfacial Electronic Interaction within ZnS Quantum Dots/N‐rGO Heterostructures for Efficient Li–CO₂ Batteries

Understanding the future of lithium: Part 2, temporally and spatially resolved life‐cycle assessment modeling

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Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries

Cited by 566 publications

References 38 publications

Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters

Are e-scooters polluters? The environmental impacts of shared dockless electric scooters

Realizing Interfacial Electronic Interaction within ZnS Quantum Dots/N‐rGO Heterostructures for Efficient Li–CO2 Batteries

Understanding the future of lithium: Part 2, temporally and spatially resolved life‐cycle assessment modeling

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Realizing Interfacial Electronic Interaction within ZnS Quantum Dots/N‐rGO Heterostructures for Efficient Li–CO₂ Batteries