Evolutionary aspects of human exercise—Born to run purposefully

Abstract

This article is intended to raise awareness of the adaptive value of endurance exercise (particularly running) in the evolutionary history of humans, and the implications of the genetic disposition to exercise for the aging populations of modern technology-driven societies. The genome of Homo sapiens has evolved to support the svelte phenotype of an endurance runner, setting him/her apart from all other primates. The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the competitive advantages conferred by exercise capacity in youth can also provide a survival benefit beyond the reproductive period. These mechanisms include up-regulation of genes encoding proteins involved in protecting cells against oxidative stress, disposing of damaged proteins and organelles, and enhancing bioenergetics. Particularly fascinating are the signaling mechanisms by which endurance running changes the structure and functional capabilities of the brain and, conversely, the mechanisms by which the brain integrates metabolic, cardiovascular and behavioral responses to exercise. As an emerging example, I highlight the roles of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) as a mediator of the effects of exercise on the brain, and BDNF s critical role in regulating metabolic and cardiovascular responses to endurance running. A better understanding of such healthspan-extending actions of endurance exercise may lead to new approaches for improving quality of life as we advance in the coming decades and centuries.

From physical inactivity to immobilization: Dissecting the role of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle insulin resistance and atrophy

“…Based on these definitions, the worldwide prevalence of physical inactivity reaches 31% in adults and 80% in adolescents [12]. This high proportion of inactive people contrasts with the singular capacity of human for long endurance exercises [13].…”

Challenging Oneself Intermittently to Improve Health

“…During evolution humans acquired: 1) an upright bipedal posture with changes in the musculoskeletal system that increased running efficiency; 2) reduced body hair, a large skin surface area and abundant sweat glands to enhance body cooling; and 3) a brain with a remarkable capacity to establish a pace conducive to the expected running distance (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004;Mattson, 2012b). There is a vast literature concerning the physiological and psychological effects of running that includes human studies that compare non-runners to runners, elite runners to 'joggers', and changes in individuals prior to and during a running program.…”

“…Another interesting adaptation suggested by studies of animal models, is that cognitive function and stress resistance improve in response to intermittent fasting (Wan et al, 2003;Ahmet et al, 2005;Mattson, 2012a;Marosi and Mattson, 2014). Similarly, endurance running, such as is required to chase and kill a deer (Zimmer, 2004), not only strengthens the muscles and heart, but also improves brain function (Ahlskog et al, 2011;Mattson, 2012b;Voss et al, 2013) (Figure 1). As with lower species of mammals, humans evolved the ability to consume a range of plant species, many of which contain chemicals that exert noxious effects on cells.…”

Influence of ABO blood group on sports performance

“…The evidence emerged from our study that individuals with O blood groups have better performance in endurance running (i.e., approximately 10% better than subjects carrying other blood groups) may evoke another evolutionary advantage that the O blood group may confer to humans. More specifically, a deep analysis of the structural and physiological features characterizing endurance running ability has recently contributed to unmask many aspects of the genus Homo, which would ultimately confer more sustained endurance running capability compared to other primates (13). These aspects especially include long legs with tendons attaching short muscle fibers to the bones, a typical plantar arch of the feet, short toes, specific muscles conformation, anthropomorphic alterations of hips and shoulders, sweat glands, reduced hair mass, mouth breathing and a body suited for a more efficient heat dissipation (13).…”

“…More specifically, a deep analysis of the structural and physiological features characterizing endurance running ability has recently contributed to unmask many aspects of the genus Homo, which would ultimately confer more sustained endurance running capability compared to other primates (13). These aspects especially include long legs with tendons attaching short muscle fibers to the bones, a typical plantar arch of the feet, short toes, specific muscles conformation, anthropomorphic alterations of hips and shoulders, sweat glands, reduced hair mass, mouth breathing and a body suited for a more efficient heat dissipation (13). It is hence now undeniable that improved performance in endurance running has played an essential role for early mankind in capturing food (i.e., persistence hunting), reaching carcasses before other vertebrate scavengers, and even making warriors more likely to survive in the battlefield (3,14).…”