Evaluation of exposure to organophosphate, carbamate, phenoxy acid, and chlorophenol pesticides in pregnant women from 10 Caribbean countries

Abstract

Pesticides are commonly used in tropical regions such as the Caribbean for both household and agricultural purposes. Of particular concern is exposure during pregnancy, as these compounds can cross the placental barrier and interfere with fetal development. The objective of this study was to evaluate exposure of pregnant women residing in 10 Caribbean countries to the following commonly used classes of pesticides in the Caribbean: organophosphates (OPs), carbamates, phenoxy acids, and chlorophenols. Out of 438 urine samples collected, 15 samples were randomly selected from each Caribbean country giving a total of 150 samples. Samples were analyzed for the following metabolites: six OP dialkylphosphate metabolites [dimethylphosphate (DMP), dimethylthiophosphate (DMTP), dimethyldithiophosphate (DMDTP), diethylphosphate (DEP), diethylthiophosphate (DETP) and diethyldithiophosphate (DEDTP)]; two carbamate metabolites [2-isopropoxyphenol (2-IPP) and carbofuranphenol]; one phenoxy acid 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D); and five chlorophenols [2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP), 2,5-dichlorophenol (2,5-DCP), 2,4,5-trichlorophenol (TCP), 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP), and pentachlorophenol (PCP)]. OP metabolites were consistently detected in ≥60% of the samples from Antigua and Barbuda, Bermuda, and Jamaica. Of the carbamate metabolites, 2-IPP was detected in seven of the 10 Caribbean countries with a detection frequency around 30%, whereas carbofuranphenol was detected in only one sample. The detection frequency for the phenoxy acid 2,4-D ranged from 20% in Grenada to a maximum of 67% in Belize. Evidence of exposure to chlorophenol pesticides was also established with 2,4-DCP by geometric means ranging from 0.52 μg L(-1) in St Lucia to a maximum of 1.68 μg L(-1) in Bermuda. Several extreme concentrations of 2,5-DCP were detected in four Caribbean countries-Belize (1100 μg L(-1)), Bermuda (870 μg L(-1)), Jamaica (1300 μg L(-1)), and St Kitts and Nevis (1400 μg L(-1)). 2,4,5-TCP, 2,4,6-TCP, and pentachlorophenol were rarely detected. This biomonitoring study underscores the need for Caribbean public health authorities to encourage their populations, and in particular pregnant women, to become more aware of the potential routes of exposure to pesticides and to utilize these chemicals more cautiously given the possible adverse effects such exposures can have on their unborn children and infants.

Distributions and determinants of urinary biomarkers of organophosphate pesticide exposure in a prospective Spanish birth cohort study

“…TCPy, DMTP, DEP, and DETP concentrations in our cohort were much lower than those reported for pregnant women from Shanghai (China) [14], Cincinnati (USA) [21], Mexico DF [35], and Canada [22, 24]. Similar concentrations of DEP and TCPy to those of our study were found in the Caribbean Islands [36] and Puerto Rico [23] studies, respectively, although the detection frequencies in our study were lower.…”

Developmental neurotoxicity of succeeding generations of insecticides

“…Epidemiological studies that investigated exposure to CA insecticides during development detected CAs or metabolites in 30% to 93% of samples from mothers/newborns of several countries (Barr and others 2010; Forde and others 2015; Ostrea and others 2009; Whyatt and others 2003) and in up to 11% of samples from children and adolescents (Needham and others 2005). While these and other studies found a significant exposure to CAs during development, we found few epidemiological studies describing developmental effects of this class of insecticide, and all of them focused on prenatal exposures (SM Table 6).…”

“…Insecticides with both similar and distinct modes of action are frequently used in the same crop (USDA 2014) and are concurrently identified in biological samples (e.g. (Barr and others 2010; Forde and others 2015; Reiler and others 2015). Despite that, there is still a restricted number of studies that investigate the effects and mechanisms associated with dual exposures.…”

Maternal Exposures Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Jamaican Children

“…However, since VOCs are ubiquitous in the environment and found in many common household products (Boyle et al, 2016), we assume that exposures to VOCs are just as likely to occur in Jamaica compared to other countries. Furthermore, pesticides are regularly used in the Wider Caribbean Region (Fernandez, Singh, & Jaffe, 2007) and studies have reported that pregnant women in Jamaica have higher urine concentrations of pesticides compared to other Caribbean countries (Forde et al, 2015), the U.S., and Canada (Dewailly et al, 2014). …”