Ethereum smart contracts: Analysis and statistics of their source code and opcodes

Bistarelli, Stefano; Mazzante, Gianmarco; Micheletti, Matteo; Mostarda, Leonardo; Sestili, Davide; Tiezzi, Francesco

doi:10.1016/j.iot.2020.100198

Cited by 26 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 4 publications

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“…Smart Contracts are pieces of runnable code inside the blockchain [ 58 ]. With SCs, any user of the blockchain could execute a computer program inside the blockchain network.…”

Section: Marketplace Testbed and Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Design and Evaluation of a Heterogeneous Lightweight Blockchain-Based Marketplace

Guerra

Guerrero

García

et al. 2022

Sensors

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The proposal of this paper is to introduce a low-level blockchain marketplace, which is a blockchain where participants could share its power generation and demand. To achieve this implementation in a secure way for each actor in the network, we proposed to deploy it over efficient and generic low-performance devices. Thus, they are installed as IoT devices, registering measurements each fifteen minutes, and also acting as blockchain nodes for the marketplace. Nevertheless, it is necessary that blockchain is lightweight, so it is implemented as a specific consensus protocol that allows each node to have enough time and computer requirements to act both as an IoT device and a blockchain node. This marketplace will be ruled by Smart Contracts deployed inside the blockchain. With them, it is possible to make registers for power generation and demand. This low-level marketplace could be connected to other services to execute matching algorithms from the data stored in the blockchain. Finally, a real test-bed implementation of the marketplace was tested, to confirm that it is technically feasible.

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“…Smart Contracts are pieces of runnable code inside the blockchain [ 58 ]. With SCs, any user of the blockchain could execute a computer program inside the blockchain network.…”

Section: Marketplace Testbed and Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Design and Evaluation of a Heterogeneous Lightweight Blockchain-Based Marketplace

Guerra

Guerrero

García

et al. 2022

Sensors

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“…Blockchain technology is a process of documenting transactions on a new distributed ledger using peer-to-peer electronic transactions proposed by Satoshi Nakamoto and an immutable ledger to store the data. The stored data in a blockchain might be Bitcoin for payment history [ 1 , 15 ], a contract [ 16 , 17 ], or personal data [ 18 ].…”

Section: Literature Reviewmentioning

confidence: 99%

SimBlock Simulator Enhancement with Difficulty Level Algorithm Based on Proof-of-Work Consensus for Lightweight Blockchain

Mardiansyah

Sari

2022

Sensors

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Proof-of-Work (PoW) was the first blockchain consensus protocol discovered, followed by Proof-of-Stake and others. The disadvantage of the PoW is that it requires high energy consumption compared to other consensus protocols. Based on this weakness, some researchers proposed a lightweight blockchain technology, a modified blockchain that has a simplified algorithm but does not reduce the security factor. This lightweight blockchain is suitable for applications requiring data reliability but with limited computing resources, such as Internet of Things devices. This paper discussed and modified the SimBlock simulator as one of the existing blockchain simulators. It has a visualization tool to look further into the propagation transition of the block. Unfortunately, the existing PoW consensus on the SimBlock simulator is unable to pinpoint the actual hash computation method. Therefore, the hashing process in the SimBlock simulator was modified by including the difficulty level for finding the hash target. The purpose of including the difficulty level was to determine how long it takes to create a block. By knowing the time needed, a recommendation could be obtained for the most suitable difficulty level for a lightweight blockchain and its implementation with IoT devices. There are two options of approaches to the difficulty level referred to in this paper; finding the number of zeros that appear sequentially and are in front of a hash value (leading zero) and finding the number of zeros that appear arbitrarily (count zero). For example, the first difficulty level on a leading-zero quest has the same meaning as searching for a leading zero, the second level of difficulty is the search for the two leading zeros, etc. The block generation time on a blockchain network using the PoW consensus highly depends on the difficulty level. Block generation time and resource utility have been analyzed and compared with other blockchain simulators and existing networks, such as Ethereum and Bitcoin. The modified SimBlock simulator was tested in this experiment using 100–600 nodes, with the expected result of creating 100–1000 blocks. Based on the experiments, creating a block using leading zeros as the hash target for the first to fourth difficulty levels took less than 1 s, whereas when using count zeros (zero-count) as the target hash, it took less than 1 s for the first to fifteenth difficulty levels. Using leading zeros took approximately 237.4 s at difficulty level 7, while count-zero took approximately 633.8 s at difficulty level 19. The experiment was not continued at the next difficulty level because it required a longer compilation time. With the modifications made, the creation of a block on a blockchain network using the PoW consensus can be clearly seen. The difficulty level added to the simulator can also provide information for determining the difficulty level to be implemented on the lightweight blockchain.

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“…The high-level codes of solidity are converted to byte code which means low level machine instructions. 34 The smart contracts are developed using a tool named Truffle.…”

Section: System Implementationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Solidity 33 (available at: https://solidity.readthedocs.io/en/develop/) is an object‐oriented language like Python and is designed with the objectives to target the Ethereum virtual machine (EVM). The high‐level codes of solidity are converted to byte code which means low level machine instructions 34 . The smart contracts are developed using a tool named Truffle.…”

Section: System Implementationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Transparent subsidized agri‐product distribution during pandemics with reputation based PoA blockchain

Bala

Kaur

2022

Concurrency and Computation

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Summary Technological advancements play a crucial role in agriculture sector aiming at eradicating numerous problems. These problems are intensified due to pandemics like delay overhead in the subsidized agri‐products supply chains. The existing technology‐based solutions are not readily adopted by stakeholders due to absence of trust. Blockchain can impart more transparency and trust in agri‐supply chains leading to fair pricing. The idea of using blockchain for financing processes in agriculture has resulted from the managerial pressure and fiscal scams which eventually aggravate the plight of farmers. Thus, a blockchain‐based subsidized agri‐products distribution (SAPD) is proposed. Blockchain has been optimized by a reputation‐based Proof‐of‐Authority (PoA) consensus algorithm. It has been implemented using Ethereum blockchain on AWS EC2 cloud. The smart contract is designed in solidity. Detailed performance evaluation has been conducted to compute cost and processing time that shows a substantial reduction in cost of managerial operations with respect to previous work by 41.65%. Finally, to assess the utility of SAPD system a qualitative user survey has been conducted. Managerial significance of system is reflected in memory space reduction by 85% in light clients and increase in transaction execution per second by 31% using reputation‐based PoA.

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Ethereum smart contracts: Analysis and statistics of their source code and opcodes

Cited by 26 publications

References 4 publications

Design and Evaluation of a Heterogeneous Lightweight Blockchain-Based Marketplace

Design and Evaluation of a Heterogeneous Lightweight Blockchain-Based Marketplace

SimBlock Simulator Enhancement with Difficulty Level Algorithm Based on Proof-of-Work Consensus for Lightweight Blockchain

Transparent subsidized agri‐product distribution during pandemics with reputation based PoA blockchain

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