Estimation of salt intake assessed by urinary excretion of sodium over 24 h in Spanish subjects aged 7–11 years

Aparicio, Aránzazu; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Elena; Cuadrado-Soto, Esther; Navia, Beatriz; López-Sobaler, Ana M.; Ortega, Rosa M.

doi:10.1007/s00394-015-1067-y

Cited by 49 publications

(60 citation statements)

References 42 publications

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“…Although food frequency questionnaires are advantageous in overcoming the problems related to day-to-day variability by estimating the intake over a longer period than the diet record or recall, it is also very difficult to accurately quantify the daily intake (18). The gold standard method for evaluating salt intake measures the amount of sodium excreted through 24-hour urine (19). As about 90% of salt consumed is excreted through urine, 24-hour urine collection reliably reflects salt intake (18).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

High Salt Intake Is Associated with Atrophic Gastritis with Intestinal Metaplasia

Song

Kim

Heo

et al. 2017

Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers &Amp; Prevention

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Although several studies have investigated excessive salt intake as a risk factor for gastric precancerous lesions, such as atrophic gastritis and intestinal metaplasia, the evidence is insufficient to make a conclusion. We evaluated the association between gastric precancerous lesions and salt intake. From 2008 to 2015, the medical records of 728 subjects who underwent upper gastrointestinal endoscopy and sodium excretion in 24-hour urine tests were retrospectively reviewed. Sixty-six subjects were excluded due to diuretics use ( = 55), diagnosis with a gastric neoplasm ( = 4), or the cases of intestinal metaplasia in the absence of atrophy ( = 7), so 662 subjects were included. Atrophic gastritis and intestinal metaplasia were diagnosed by endoscopic findings. The subjects were grouped into three levels by tertiles of 24-hour urine sodium excretion. A total of 192 (29.0%) had atrophic gastritis without intestinal metaplasia and 112 (16.9%) had atrophic gastritis with intestinal metaplasia. A total of 276 subjects (61.5%) were infected with (). In multivariate analyses, infection [OR = 14.17; 95% confidence interval (CI), 7.12-28.22) was associated with atrophic gastritis without intestinal metaplasia. Highest levels of sodium excretion (OR = 2.870; 95% CI, 1.34-6.14), heavy smoking (≥20 pack-years) (OR = 2.75; 95% CI, 1.02-7.39), and infection (OR = 3.96; 95% CI, 2.02-7.76) were associated with atrophic gastritis with intestinal metaplasia. Our endoscopy-based study suggested that high salt intake could be associated with an increased risk of atrophic gastritis with intestinal metaplasia. Low salt diet might be helpful to prevent gastric carcinogenesis. .

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

High Salt Intake Is Associated with Atrophic Gastritis with Intestinal Metaplasia

Song

Kim

Heo

et al. 2017

Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers &Amp; Prevention

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“…The 24-h urine collection, the major strength of our study, is considered to be the gold standard to assess sodium intake [ 41 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ] since 90% of ingested sodium is excreted in the urine [ 57 ]. Besides rigorous validation through urinary creatinine excretion, which minimizes bias due to under- or over-collection, more than a single 24-h urine collection should have been obtained from each participant to decrease daily variability.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion and Dietary Sources of Sodium in Maputo, Mozambique

et al. 2017

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This study aimed to evaluate the urinary excretion of sodium and potassium, and to estimate the main food sources of sodium in Maputo dwellers. A cross-sectional evaluation of a sample of 100 hospital workers was conducted between October 2012 and May 2013. Sodium and potassium urinary excretion was assessed in a 24-h urine sample; creatinine excretion was used to exclude unlikely urine values. Food intake in the same period of urine collection was assessed using a 24-h dietary recall. The Food Processor Plus® was used to estimate sodium intake corresponding to naturally occurring sodium and sodium added to processed foods (non-discretionary sodium). Salt added during culinary preparations (discretionary sodium) was computed as the difference between urinary sodium excretion and non-discretionary sodium. The mean (standard deviation) urinary sodium excretion was 4220 (1830) mg/day, and 92% of the participants were above the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. Discretionary sodium contributed 60.1% of total dietary sodium intake, followed by sodium from processed foods (29.0%) and naturally occurring sodium (10.9%). The mean (standard deviation) urinary potassium excretion was 1909 (778) mg/day, and 96% of the participants were below the WHO potassium intake recommendation. The mean (standard deviation) sodium to potassium molar ratio was 4.2 (2.4). Interventions to decrease sodium and increase potassium intake are needed in Mozambique.

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“…In Europe, there is little data on the salt intake in children, but the few available studies suggests that intake is high, similarly to adults [33]. In Spain, a study conducted in 2014 with 205 children aged 7-11 years old and using 24-h urine collections showed a salt intake of 7.8 g per day [34]. In Portugal, a study conducted in 2014 among 163 children between 8 and 10 years of age who collected a 24h urine sample showed a salt intake of 6.6 g per day [35].…”

Section: Summary Of Findingsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Estimation of salt intake and excretion in children in one region of Switzerland: a cross-sectional study

et al. 2018

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Salt intake among children in Switzerland is unknown. The objectives of this study were to determine salt excretion and to identify the main dietary sources of salt intake among children in one region of Switzerland. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study using a convenient sample of children 6-16 years of age in Valais, Switzerland, between 2016 and 2018. All children visiting several regional health care providers and without any clinical condition that could affect sodium intake or excretion were eligible. Each child completed a 24-hour urine collection to assess salt excretion and two dietary questionnaires to assess dietary sources of salt intake. Weight and height were measured. Results: Data was available on 94 children (55 boys and 39 girls; mean age: 10.5 years; age range: 6-16 years). The mean 24-hour salt urinary excretion was 5.9 g (SD: 2.8; range: 0.8-16.0; 95% confidence interval (CI): 5.3-6.5). Two thirds (62%) of the children had salt excretions above recommendations of maximum intake (i.e., ≥2 g per day for children up to 6 years of age and ≥5 g per day for children 7-16 years of age). The salt excretion tended to be higher during the weekend (6.0 g, 95% CI: 5.4-6.6) than during the week (5.4 g, 95% CI: 4.3-6.7). The main sources of salt intake were pastas, potatoes, and rice (23% of total salt intake), pastries (16%), bread (16%), and cured meats (10%). One child out of three (34%) added salt to their plate at the table. Conclusions: Salt intake in children in one region of Switzerland was high. Our findings suggest that salt intake in children could be reduced by lowering salt content in commonly eaten foods.

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Estimation of salt intake assessed by urinary excretion of sodium over 24 h in Spanish subjects aged 7–11 years

Cited by 49 publications

References 42 publications

High Salt Intake Is Associated with Atrophic Gastritis with Intestinal Metaplasia

High Salt Intake Is Associated with Atrophic Gastritis with Intestinal Metaplasia

Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion and Dietary Sources of Sodium in Maputo, Mozambique

Estimation of salt intake and excretion in children in one region of Switzerland: a cross-sectional study

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