Estimating Cognitive Reserve in Healthy Adults Using the Cognitive Reserve Scale

Abstract

The concept of cognitive reserve emerged from observed disparities between brain pathology and clinical symptoms. It may explain better neuropsychological performance in healthy individuals. The objectives of this study were to measure reserve in healthy subjects using a new Cognitive Reserve Scale (CRS), analyze the internal consistency of the CRS, and analyze validity evidence. A total of 117 healthy individuals were divided into two groups: 87 adults (aged 18–64 years) and 30 elderly adults (≥65 years). All subjects completed the CRS and a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. The internal consistency of the scale was satisfactory (α = 0.77). No significant differences were observed between genders (t = 0.51, p = 0.611), and age was corrected by averaging the CRS score. The study of validity evidence showed that education affected the CRS (t = −2.98, p = 0.004, partial h2 = 0.07) and there was no significant relationship between the CRS and IQ (r = 0.09, p = 0.33). Occupational attainment and the CRS were not related (F2,116 = 0.11, p = 0.898). In line with previous studies on reserve, heterogeneity was observed in the analyses of relationships between the CRS and cognitive performance. There were significant relationships between CRS score and the Verbal Learning Spanish–Complutense Test last trial (r = 0.24, p = 0.009), sum (r = 0.32, p = 0.000), short-term (r = 0.29, p = 0.002) and long-term memory (r = 0.22, p = 0.018), Matrix Reasoning subtest (r = 0.20, p = 0.027) and Block Design subtest (r = 0.20, p = 0.029). No other neuropsychological variables correlated with the CRS (p>0.05). The CRS is a reliable instrument that reflects the frequency of participation in brain-stimulating activities across the lifetime. The associations between the CRS and education and neuropsychological performance support validity evidence.

Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis in Frontotemporal Dementia: Evidence from a Brain SPECT Study in a Series of Greek Frontotemporal Dementia Patients

“…Many similar questionnaires have been introduced in the last few years [22-25] but the CRIq, which we used in our study, is unique in that it takes into account the frequency and time spent in each recorded activity (educational, occupational, or leisure time). Thus, the CRI illustrates active, continuous, and lifelong CR formation.…”

Cognitive reserve and neuropsychiatric disorders

“…Two meta-analyses incorporating studies up to 2004 suggested that the risk of dementia is decreased by 46% in people with high cognitive reserve defined by these parameters [13,14]. Consequently questionnaires capturing these facets of life experience were developed as measures of cognitive reserve [15][16][17][18]. Such tools are useful as they provide a methodology for the uniform collection of pertinent variables across studies.…”

Escala de Reserva Cognitiva y envejecimiento

“…The psychometric properties of the CRS suggest its adequacy to measure cognitive reserve (León et al, 2014).…”

“…First, a review of cognitive reserve studies was conducted to generate the items of the scale, and the CRS was supervised by experts (León et al, 2011). Secondly, the relationships between the CRS score and educational attainment, occupational attainment and IQ, three variables usually used as proxies of cognitive reserve (León et al, 2014), were analysed. The results showed that educational attainment affected the CRS score (p = .004, partial η 2 = .07), and that neither occupational attainment (p = .898) nor IQ (p = .33) affected the CRS score.…”

“…In this perspective, a new test called the Cognitive Reserve Scale (CRS) has been developed to estimate cognitive reserve in the Spanish population (León, García-García, & Roldán-Tapia, 2014). The CRS contains 24 items and is divided into three periods of life: young adulthood, adulthood and late adulthood.…”