Equal Employment Opportunity and the “Managerial Woman” in Japan

Abstract

Over the past three decades, women have represented an increasing proportion of newly employed four‐year college graduates, in Japan. We analyze the determinants of female representation among these new recruits in terms of the supply of female four‐year college graduates, the desire of Japanese women to participate in the paid labor force, shortages of male four‐year college graduates, and the impact of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) that went into effect in April 1986. Multivariate regression analysis reveals that the supply of female four‐year college graduates and the EEOL account for the rising proportion of women among university‐educated recruits into the paid labor force. We go on to explore the enhanced, but still limited, career opportunities that have opened up to Japanese women under the EEOL, and we relate their progress to the recent debate over the use of the “mommy track” in managerial hierarchies in the United States.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Law and labor force behavior of women in Japan

“…Since the enactment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) in 1986, many have tried to assess its impact on women's participation in the labor market in Japan (Edwards, 1988;1994;Cannings and Lazonick, 1994). While some contend that the law has had minimal impact, recent aggregate level statistics indicate that women's participation rate has risen over time.…”

Equal Employment Opportunity Law and the gender wage gap in Japan: A cohort analysis

“…In this article, I perform a cohort-based analysis of the female-to-male wage gap. Analysis by cohorts is particularly important because the EEOL is assumed to have expanded employment opportunities for younger cohorts of women who finished schooling and entered the labor market after the EEOL's enactment in 1986 (Edwards 1988(Edwards , 1994Cannings and Lazonick 1994;Blau et al 2006;Abe 2009a). I call those cohorts who finished schooling after 1986 "post-EEOL cohorts" and those cohorts who finished schooling before the EEOL enactment "pre-EEOL cohorts."…”

Revolutions, Samurai, and Reductons: The Parodoxes of Change and Continuity in Iran and Japan

“…Evidence suggests that the EEOL has had some positive impact on women's employment opportunities in Japan. Cannings and Lazonick (1994), for example, show that the EEOL has encouraged employers to increase significantly the proportion of university-educated women among new company recruits. Also, a survey by the National Institute of Employment and Vocational Research (1988) found that the percentage of Japanese companies planning to use women only for auxiliary positions without potential for promotion had fallen from 34% to 15% after the implementation of the EEOL.…”

“…Furthermore, since the passing of the EEOL, a two-track employment system for university graduates-a "managerial employee track" and a "clerical employee track"-has appeared in numerous Japanese companies. In theory, both employment tracks are equally opened to men and women, but in practice, the clerical track has become the equivalent of the "mommy track" (Ehrlich, 1989;Schwartz, 1989) in the United States-a track for educated women who want to pursue a career but are limited in their professional commitment by family obligations to children and spouses (Cannings & Lazonick, 1994).…”

“…Finally, a survey of Japanese companies found that 88% would transfer only men to another location, in contrast to 11% that said they would transfer both men and women, if the assignment required the employee to move (Women's Bureau, 1989). Such an attitude seriously limits opportunities for managerial women to gain the versatility in job experience needed for further promotions (Cannings & Lazonick, 1994).…”