Epidemiology of typhoid fever in Singapore

Abstract

A total of 1452 cases of typhoid fever was notified in Singapore from 1980-9. The morbidity rates of indigenous cases showed a steady decline from 5.9 per 100,000 population in 1980 to 1.2 per 100,000 population in 1989. The mean case fatality was 0.8%. Children, adolescents and young adults were most susceptible to typhoid fever. There was no significant difference in morbidity rates between the major ethnic groups. The vast majority of indigenous cases were sporadic while outbreaks accounted for almost one third of them. Food was the main vehicle of transmission. The commonest indigenous phage types were B1, D1 and A. Antimicrobial resistance was infrequently seen. The proportion of imported cases rose from 32% in 1980 to 72% in 1989. Almost half (48.5%) of all imported cases were local residents who contracted typhoid fever while travelling in endemic countries. As imported cases assume greater importance in the epidemiology of typhoid fever in Singapore, further drop in typhoid fever incidence would require reduction of travel-related cases through greater awareness of food hygiene and effective vaccination.

Knowledge, Attitude and Practice among food handlers on food borne diseases: A hospital based study in tertiary care hospital.

“…Personal hygiene and environmental sanitation are key factors in the transmission of foodbornediseases. 5,6 About 10-30% of healthy persons carry bacteria in the nose and skin, axilla, perineum and throat. 7 This study was undertaken to assess the food borne diseases and food hygiene Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) among the food handlers.…”

A Massive Epidemic of Multidrug‐Resistant Typhoid Fever in Tajikistan Associated with Consumption of Municipal Water

“…Deaths occur in ∼15% of untreated cases of typhoid fever [2,3]; however, in areas where appropriate antimicrobial and supportive therapy is available, !1% of patients die [4][5][6]. Salmonella Typhi infects only humans and is spread most frequently through ingestion of contaminated food or water.…”

Typhoid fever from water desalinized using reverse osmosis

“…There were 11 CC in KKH (9 staff members and 2 in family of the staff; attack rate [AR] = 140/10000), 13 CC in the TMC (AR = 0-8/10000) and 57 community cases (AR = 4-4/10000). The first five cases of TF occurred within a 5-day period in unrelated people who lived in the three different quarters of the city.…”

“…The sex ratio in some other outbreaks of TF has been 1:1 [13,16]. Sex differentials in Saudi Arabia need further studies.…”

“…Absence of patients under 1 year of age was expected; it could be attributed to the protected life-style of the children and may suggest a role for breast milk. Different age-specific ARs have been reported in some other studies [12][13][14][15]. Mahle and Levine (1993) reviewed published notification data from areas where TF is endemic [12].…”