Environmental life cycle implications of upscaling lithium-ion battery production

Abstract

Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) literature evaluating environmental burdens from lithium-ion battery (LIB) production facilities lacks an understanding of how environmental burdens have changed over time due to a transition to large-scale production. The purpose of this study is hence to examine the effect of upscaling LIB production using unique life cycle inventory data representative of large-scale production. A sub-goal of the study is to examine how changes in background datasets affect environmental impacts. Method We remodel an often-cited study on small-scale battery production by Ellingsen et al. (2014), representative of operations in 2010, and couple it to updated Ecoinvent background data. Additionally, we use new inventory data to model LIB cell production in a large-scale facility representative of the latest technology in LIB production. The cell manufactured in the small-scale facility is an NMC-1:1:1 (nickel-manganese-cobalt) pouch cell, whereas in the large-scale facility, the cell produced in an NMC-8:1:1 cylindrical cell. We model production in varying carbon intensity scenarios using recycled and exclusively primary materials as input options. We assess environmental pollution–related impacts using ReCiPe midpoint indicators and resource use impacts using the surplus ore method (ReCiPe) and the crustal scarcity indicator. Results and discussion Remodelling of the small-scale factory using updated background data showed a 34% increase in greenhouse gas emissions — linked to updated cobalt sulfate production data. Upscaling production reduced emissions by nearly 45% in the reference scenario (South Korean energy mix) due to a reduced energy demand in cell production. However, the emissions reduce by a further 55% if the energy is sourced from a low-carbon intensity source (Swedish energy mix), shifting almost all burden to upstream supply chain. Regional pollution impacts such as acidification and eutrophication show similar trends. Toxic emissions also reduce, but unlike other impacts, they were already occurring during mining and ore processing. Lastly, nickel, cobalt, and lithium use contribute considerably to resource impacts. From a long-term perspective, copper becomes important from a resource scarcity perspective. Conclusions Upscaling LIB production shifts environmental burdens to upstream material extraction and production, irrespective of the carbon intensity of the energy source. Thus, a key message for the industry and policy makers is that further reductions in the climate impacts from LIB production are possible, only when the upstream LIB supply chain uses renewable energy source. An additional message to LCA practitioners is to examine the effect of changing background systems when evaluating maturing technologies.

Upscaling via a Prospective LCA: A Case Study on Tomato Homogenate Using a Near-to-Market Pasteurisation Technology

“…These results highlight the significance of the share of the energy sources; impacts could shift from one category to another. Other studies [89,90] reveal similar results in which the use of renewable energy sources in the electricity background of future scenarios significantly lessens the environmental impacts.…”

Re-evaluation of the Global Warming Potential for the Production of Lithium-Ion Batteries with Nickel–Manganese–Cobalt Cathode Chemistries in China

“…The BOMs for NMC111 traction batteries are extracted or rebuilt from literature in Sections and 4.2. ,,,,,, In order to include Ni-rich chemistries, batteries with NMC622 and NMC811 cathodes are studied using the BOMs available in Argonne’s Battery Performance and Cost (BatPaC) Model V. 4 . The obtained results based on the BatPaC model are compared to BOMs sourced from independent studies in Section . , The NMC532 is excluded in this study due to the lack of sufficient data.…”

“…per kWh, excluding the end-of-life stage. Chordia et al conducted a cradle-to-gate LCA based on conservative process simulations to produce NMC811 cells in a plant with a 16 GWh/year production capacity. Their analysis resulted in GWP impacts equal to 104 and 50 kg CO 2 eq.…”

“…While Ni-rich NMC cathodes (NMC532, NMC622, and NMC811) offer higher-energy densities and lower prices, they face issues with thermal stability and lifetime . Despite the technical challenges, high nickel content chemistries are currently the most likely candidates for high-density LIBs …”

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