Re-evaluation of the Global Warming Potential for the Production of Lithium-Ion Batteries with Nickel–Manganese–Cobalt Cathode Chemistries in China

Abstract

This study proposes a unified life cycle inventory (LCI) for evaluating the global warming potential (GWP) impact of producing lithium-ion power batteries (LIBs) in China, the largest LIB producer worldwide. Using the open-access Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model, a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment is conducted for lithium−nickel−manganese−cobalt oxide (NMC) chemistries for electric vehicle applications. The LCI is obtained by coupling the GREET model with the data from studies on the Chinese battery industry to represent a more true-to-life approach. Brine, ore, and mixed sources of lithium are considered for the production of active cathode material. Two manufacturing scenarios are developed based on the plant capacity, and different approaches are developed for data acquisition. The bill of materials (BOMs) for each battery is extracted from the corresponding literature and applied to the proposed LCIs and manufacturing scenarios to be compared with the GWP value reported in the original study. The results show that for producing 1 kWh of battery energy storage, the overall GWP can vary from 89 to 169 kg CO 2 eq. depending on the lithium source, manufacturing scenario, and the BOM. Similarly, the GWP impact associated with battery-grade material production differs from 70 to 115 kg CO 2 eq. per kWh, where the effect of manufacturing scenarios is suspended. Also, the GWP impact of different NMC cathode chemistries' production is discussed. It is found that, based on the BatPaC model, upon increasing the nickel content, the GWP impact slightly decreases. However, using different BOMs, NMC111 cathode chemistry can result in a smaller GWP impact compared to NMC622 and NMC811, when the amount of cathode active material is relatively low in NMC111 cathode chemistry. Also, the positive effects of electric mobility are emphasized in vehicles with low fuel consumption and small batteries by conducting a simplified analysis of the use phase of battery electric vehicles running on different battery sizes and consumptions.

Gels in Motion: Recent Advancements in Energy Applications

“…Despite having reached a satisfactory stage in energy storage devices to foresee achievable carbon neutrality and net zero emissions, protecting our world from global warming due to burning fossil fuels is a daunting task ahead [109]. As the pursuit of green energy generation and effective storage gains momentum, researchers are making significant strides, although full substitution of fossil fuels remains a distant goal.…”

Should high‐cobalt EV batteries be repurposed? Using LCA to assess the impact of technological innovation on the waste hierarchy

“…A number of LCAs have compared impacts of LIB cathode chemistries (Peters et al, 2017) demonstrating chemistries containing cobalt and nickel have a higher percent contribution to battery production GHG emissions (Ambrose & Kendall, 2016). Impacts also vary based on the levels of cobalt and nickel (Bonalumi & Tabrizi, 2022;Crenna et al, 2021;Degen & Schütte, 2022;Jinasena et al, 2021). Winjobi et al (2022) found that with decreasing levels of cobalt and increasing nickel (NMC111 compared to NMC811) the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions decreased by 7.5% but sulfur oxide (SO x ) increased by 104% due to emissions from the production of nickel.…”

“…A number of LCAs have compared impacts of LIB cathode chemistries (Peters et al., 2017) demonstrating chemistries containing cobalt and nickel have a higher percent contribution to battery production GHG emissions (Ambrose & Kendall, 2016). Impacts also vary based on the levels of cobalt and nickel (Bonalumi & Tabrizi, 2022; Crenna et al., 2021; Degen & Schütte, 2022; Jinasena et al., 2021). Winjobi et al.…”

Retrofit of Diesel Engines with H2 for Potential Decarbonization of Non-Electrified Railways: Assessment with Lifecycle Analysis and Advanced Numerical Modeling

“…New applications like hard-to-abate industries, power generation, and transport will constitute 40% of the H 2 demand in 2030 [2]. For vehicles, the application of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles can be promising, specifically for smaller vehicles circulating in countries with lower electricity carbon intensity [3,4]. However, for decarbonizing heavy-duty vehicles or trains, hydrogen can become a more appropriate solution [5][6][7].…”