Environmental Aspect Concerning Phthalates Contamination: Analytical Approaches and Assessment of Biomonitoring in the Aquatic Environment

Abstract

This review is a survey of recent progress in studies concerning the impact of phthalic acid esters in aquatic organisms. After introducing the classification, properties, sources, fate, and toxic effects related to phthalates, an overview of the techniques of extraction and analysis of these substances is provided. As a result, the general concepts of environmental bioindicators, biomonitoring systems, and other concepts related to phthalate contamination in the aquatic environment are presented. Recent bioaccumulation data of different phthalates are summarised in a table and organised according to the type of organism, tissue, and geographical area of sampling. Bioindicator organisms that are more representative of the different phthalates are highlighted and discussed as along with other variables that may be relevant in the assessment of the environmental pollution of these substances. The final part looks at the environmental perspectives and suggests new directions and research objectives to be achieved in the future.

The Origin of Phthalates in Algae: Biosynthesis and Environmental Bioaccumulation

“…Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a class of lipophilic chemicals (with partition coefficient octanol/water, log K ow , ranging from 1.6 to 12) widely used since 1930s as additives in various products such as in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products, personal care products, cosmetics, adhesives, paints, printing inks, pesticides, toys, and in many other applications from electronics to medications [1][2][3][4]. PAEs are therefore used both as plasticizers and as non-plasticizers: to improve different characteristics of various products (e.g., durability, resistance, extensibility, flexibility in polymer or persistence in perfumes, etc.)…”

“…PAEs are therefore used both as plasticizers and as non-plasticizers: to improve different characteristics of various products (e.g., durability, resistance, extensibility, flexibility in polymer or persistence in perfumes, etc.) [3,4].…”

“…PAEs are ubiquitous substances easily detected in all environmental compartments (atmosphere, water, soil, and sediments) [4].…”

“…The large amount of plastic pollution has led to the significant accumulation of these substances in aquatic environments. Once PAEs are released, they can be transferred through the food chain, causing detrimental effects to the health of exposed organisms and ultimately impacting the ecosystem's functioning [4,8]. In fact, phthalates are known to be endocrine-active substances (EAS) and can cause different liver, reproductive, metabolic, and developmental diseases [4].…”

“…The sources of contamination are typically considered anthropogenic: once synthesized and added as additives, they are easily released into the environment (e.g., from plastic to the aquatic environment) [4]. When phthalates are used as monomers to produce polymers, they are covalently bonded with each other.…”