The Origin of Phthalates in Algae: Biosynthesis and Environmental Bioaccumulation

Abstract

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a class of ubiquitous and dangerous lipophilic chemicals widely used as additives in various products to improve their physical and chemical properties. Although they have been banned in many countries, their persistence in all environmental compartments is of particular concern. The aquatic environment is especially affected by these compounds because it is strongly influenced both by contamination of anthropic origin and natural contaminants including those produced biosynthetically by some organisms such as algae. In this context, algal organisms can be a source and remedy for phthalate pollution. Both the increase and decrease in uptake and production depend on the physicochemical characteristics of the environment. The dynamics of the natural processes are aimed at achieving an optimal environmental state for their competitiveness and balance of the cellular homeostasis. This review summarizes the studies dealing with biosynthesis and bioaccumulation of phthalates in algae and investigates the source of their origin by suggesting strategies to identify the process leading to their presence.

Contamination Profiles of Selected Pollutants in Procambarus clarkii Non-Edible Portions Highlight Their Potential Exploitation Applications

“…For instance, pesticides play a crucial role in modern agriculture by combating biotic factors that pose threats to crops; organometallic compounds serve as antifouling agents in ship paints; biocides have been used in polymers, textiles, etc. ; TEs such as zinc and iron have been used as soil improvers; and PFAS and PAEs have been used as additives or constituents to improve the characteristics of different products, such as plastics and textiles [ 3 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].…”

“…Several studies have found that aquatic organisms easily bioaccumulate these pollutants [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 11 , 12 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Among these, particular attention has recently been paid to Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852), an alien and invasive species widely recognized as a bioaccumulator of pollutants, particularly of toxic elements [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ].…”