Emotion Socialization and Expressive Development in Preterm and Full-Term Infants

Abstract

The expressive behaviors of full-term and preterm infants and their mothers were examined during face-to-face interaction when the infants were approximately 2 1/2, 5, and 7 1/2 months old. Videotapes of the sessions were coded on a second-to-second basis using Izard's discrete emotion coding system. Overall, infants showed a linear increase in positive effect, especially interest and joy, and a corresponding decrease in negative affect, especially pain and knit brow, with age; decrease in negative affect was accounted for largely by the preterm infants. In terms of maternal responses, there was an increase in contingent responding to infant interest expressions and a decrease in contingent responding to infant pain expressions over time, especially in the case of the preterm infant. The data set as a whole was examined further to establish the directionality of influence between mothers and infants in change patterns over time. There was evidence of learning effects in infants as a function of maternal modeling and contingency patterns. Anomalies in maternal responses to preterm infant affect expressions were observed. Mothers of these infants displayed significantly less matching or imitation of their infant's facial expressions, showed random rather than contingent responsiveness to sadness, and a significant ignoring response to infant anger. These differences were attributed to differences in gazing patterns and negative emotion expression in preterm infants. The results are discussed within a framework of emotion socialization that recognizes bidirectionality of influence in the emotional patterns of mothers and infants.

Growth in temperament and parenting as predictors of adjustment during children's transition to adolescence.

“…For example, studies show that infant and toddler negative affect and difficult temperament predict maternal responsiveness, guidance, control, involvement, social interaction, and conflict interactions (e.g., Bates, Pettit, & Dodge, 1995;Braungart-Rieker, Garwood, & Stifter, 1997;Campbell, 1979;Crockenberg & Acredolo, 1983;Linn & Horowitz, 1983;Maccoby, Snow, & Jacklin, 1984;Malatesta, Grigoryev, Lamb, Albin, & Culver, 1986; van den Boom, 1989). These studies have consistently shown that difficult temperament and negative affect, particularly irritability, are related to less optimal parenting behaviors, such as unresponsiveness, lack of contingent responding, and harsh control.…”

Arousal modulation in cocaine-exposed infants.

“…This is a critical skill that is related to an infant's developing cognitive and emotional abilities. The regulation of emotional responses should have particularly important implications for social development and the development of a sense of self-efficacy (Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994;Kogan & Carter, 1996;Lewis & Ramsay, 1997;Malatesta, Grigoryev, Lamb, Albin, & Culver, 1986;Thompson, 1994). Individual differences in level of arousal and the capacity to calm following arousing events are evident early in infancy (Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981;Thompson, 1994).…”

“…Moreover, emotional regulation develops through the interaction between such intrinsic, apparently biologically based emotional processes and extrinsic experiential processes. Extrinsic socialization processes define how the infant interprets and manages emotional experience in the service of accomplishing goals (Bruner, 1982;Kaye, 1982;Lewis & Michalson, 1983;Malatesta et al, 1986).…”

Filial Therapy with Native Americans on the Flathead Reservation

“…Research cited in the survey reported the effects of nurturing parental behaviors to be increased sharing and comforting (Bradley, Caldwell, & Rock, 1988;Bryant & Crockenberg, 1980), fewer behavioral problems (Pettit & Bates, 1989), expression of positive emotions (Malatesta, Grigoryev, Lamb, Albin, & Culver, 1986), increased intellectual ability (Clarke-Stewart, 1977;Morrow & Wilson, 1961), and the development of social competence (Rollins & Thomas, 1975;Staub, 1979).…”