Elastic 3D‐Printed Hybrid Polymeric Scaffold Improves Cardiac Remodeling after Myocardial Infarction

Abstract

Myocardial remodeling, including ventricular dilation and wall thinning, is an important pathological process caused by myocardial infarction (MI). To intervene in this pathological process, a new type of cardiac scaffold composed of a thermoset (poly‐[glycerol sebacate], PGS) and a thermoplastic (poly‐[ε‐caprolactone], PCL) is directly printed by employing fused deposition modeling 3D‐printing technology. The PGS‐PCL scaffold possesses stacked construction with regular crisscrossed filaments and interconnected micropores and exhibits superior mechanical properties. In vitro studies demonstrate favorable biodegradability and biocompatibility of the PGS‐PCL scaffold. When implanted onto the infarcted myocardium, this scaffold improves and preserves heart function. Furthermore, the scaffold improves several vital aspects of myocardial remodeling. On the morphological level, the scaffold reduces ventricular wall thinning and attenuated infarct size, and on the cellular level, it enhances vascular density and increases M2 macrophage infiltration, which might further contribute to the mitigated myocardial apoptosis rate. Moreover, the flexible PGS‐PCL scaffold can be tailored to any desired shape, showing promise for annular‐shaped restraint device application and meeting the demands for minimal invasive operation. Overall, this study demonstrates the therapeutic effects and versatile applications of a novel 3D‐printed, biodegradable and biocompatible cardiac scaffold, which represents a promising strategy for improving myocardial remodeling after MI.

Engineered 3D Polymer and Hydrogel Microenvironments for Cell Culture Applications

“…FDM is particularly flexible in terms of additives and composites. Using PCL as a base the following mixtures with a large variation in mechanical properties were synthesized: bioactive glass (compressive modulus increase of~40% up to~150 MPa [95]); soft elastomers (Young's modulus reduction to~750 kPa, tensile strength reduction to~300 kPa, and maximum elongation of 57% [96]); polyurethane formulations (tensile strength of 8-21 MPa and maximum elongation of 200-720% [97]); bio-ceramics such as β-TCP (a 33% increase in Young's modulus and yield strength [90]); polymers such as PLA [98,99] (tensile strength of 45 MPa and 5.5% elongation using TiO 2 as filler [100]), and PPF [93]; and micro-crystalline cellulose (compressive modulus between 7-32 MPa, flexural modulus of 55-76 MPa, yield strength 4-6.9 MPa [101]).…”

Modular Strategies to Build Cell-Free and Cell-Laden Scaffolds towards Bioengineered Tissues and Organs

“…The versatility of AM techniques in terms of materials choice and structure design enabled the use of additive manufactured scaffolds in other important fields, such as cardiac and nerve tissues’ regeneration. One of the most interesting works concerns a scaffold for cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction, which is proposed by Yang and co-workers [116]. This device was fabricated by employing the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology, whose typical resolution is of hundreds of microns [117], to obtain a stacked construction of PGS/PCL blend with regular crisscrossed strands and interconnected micropores (Figure 4i).…”

“…( d – h ) Reproduced with permission from Reference [113] (Mekhileri, Biofabrication; published by IOP Publishing, 2018). ( i – k ) Reproduced with permission from Reference [116] (Yang, Advanced Healthcare Materials; published by John Wiley and Sons, 2019). ( l – o ) Reproduced with permission from Reference [119] (Koffler, Nature Medicine; published by Springer Nature, 2019).…”

Multi-layer Scaffolds of Poly(caprolactone), Poly(glycerol sebacate) and Bioactive Glasses Manufactured by Combined 3D Printing and Electrospinning

“…Recently, blends of poly(caprolactone) (PCL), a slow-degrading polyester, and poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS), a fast-degrading polyester, have been processed by either electrospinning or 3D printing to create porous and biodegradable scaffolds with controlled mechanical properties for heart valve replacement [4][5][6], cardiac patches [7][8][9] and corneal tissue repair [10]. In one study, the degradation of PGS-PCL electrospun scaffolds (with a 2:1 PGS:PCL weight ratio) has been investigated in accelerated conditions in an alkaline medium (0.1 mM NaOH) and in vitro using valvular interstitial cells (VICs) [5].…”

“…Aiming at improving cardiac remodelling after myocardial infarction, 3D printing of mixtures of PGS-PCL (with a PGS:PCL 9:1 weight ratio) and sacrificial sodium chloride particles has been performed [9]. Due to the high PGS concentration and 60% porosity, the scaffolds exhibited a Young's modulus of 0.7 MPa and fast degradation (90% in 12 h) in highly concentrated PBS solution of lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus.…”