Effects of Hormonal and Nonhormonal Contraceptives on Lactation and Incidence of Pregnancy

The Impact of Oral Contraceptives on Women's Periodontal Health and the Subgingival Occurrence of Aggressive Periodontopathogens and Candida Species

“…The influence of OC use on oral health has been addressed in several studies 1‐7 . Although it is widely accepted that female sex hormones have an impact on oral structures and there is evidence suggesting that sex hormones may produce gingival inflammation by altering the microvascular component of the gingiva, 38,39 the influence of OC usage by females of child‐bearing age on the progression of periodontitis is controversial 1,7 …”

“…Hormonal contraceptive usage by females of child‐bearing age has been suggested as a potential risk factor for the progression of destructive periodontitis 1‐6 . However, recent data from large cross‐sectional studies (National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys I and III) failed to validate this hypothesis 7 …”

“…Variations in female endogenous sex hormones during menstruation or pregnancy or use of OCs have long been associated with gingivitis 1‐6,8‐11 . An in vitro study showed that polymorphonucleocyte chemotaxis was enhanced by progesterone and reduced by estradiol.…”

Reproductive Function During Lactation

“…Although many investigators continue to evaluate the impact of lactation on ovulation and menstruation, the fundamental observations remain the same 3,35,51,113,129 (Table 20-1). Available data on return of ovulation and menstruation can be summarized as follows 103 …”