Effects of field-applied composted cattle manure and chemical fertilizer on ammonia and particulate ammonium exchanges at an upland field

Atmosphere-rice paddy exchanges of inorganic particles and relevant gases during a week in winter and a week in summer

“…Field-applied manure is a possible source of atmospheric NH 3 (e.g., Hayashi et al, 2009a). However, no manure application was conducted in or adjacent to the study site during the study period of winter 2009.…”

“…According to Hayashi et al (2009a), the filter-pack method had 7.1％ and 15.1％ of the mean coefficients of variation for air concentrations of NH 3 and pNH 4 , respectively. The filter-pack method may cause some possible artifacts.…”

“…The mean coefficients of variation of air concentration were set to 7％ and 15％ for gases and particles, respectively, referring to Hayashi et al (2009a), regardless of the chemical species. The maximum relative errors in D were set to 20％ and 100％ in the daytime and nighttime, respectively, according to Miyata (2001).…”

“…Dry deposition is a continuous process and is governed by air concentrations, turbulent transport processes in the boundary layer, the chemical and physical nature of the depositing species, and the capability of the surface to capture or absorb the species (Hertel et al, 2011). Some atmospheric constituents, such as NH 3 (Hayashi et al, 2009a), show bidirectional fluxes (emission and dry deposition).…”

“…Land acts as an emission source of trace gases, not only greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and nitrous oxide (e.g., Pandis, 2006a, 2006b), but also ammonia (NH 3 ) (e.g., Hayashi et al, 2008Hayashi et al, , 2009a which is the reactive nitrogen with the greatest man-induced emissions in the world (Galloway et al, 2004). These gases are emitted from soil and water surfaces and/or plants.…”