Effects of Age, Gender, BMI, and Anatomical Site on Skin Thickness in Children and Adults with Diabetes

Derraik, José G. B.; Rademaker, Marius; Cutfield, Wayne S.; Pinto, Teresa; Tregurtha, Sheryl; Faherty, Ann; Peart, Jane; Drury, Paul; Hofman, Paul L.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0086637

Cited by 100 publications

(82 citation statements)

References 30 publications

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“…Experimental measurements of the skin emissivity of males indicate that those with high BMI have on average an emissivity ∼0.0981 higher than those with normal BMI, with the differences in the mean emissivity values across the different locations varying from ∼0.05 to ∼0.15. These differences are consistent with the fact that human skin is getting thicker with increasing the BMI [39], a consequence of this being that blood vessels are further from the surface of the skin.…”

Section: Skin Signature For Male and Female Having Normal And High Bosupporting

confidence: 84%

“…Human skin becomes thicker with increasing body mass index (BMI) for both genders at any age [39], so variability in the emissivity of the skin from suitably selected participants was investigated. The measurements were performed on 20 participants (10 males and 10 females) having normal and high body mass index.…”

Section: Skin Signature For Male and Female Having Normal And High Bomentioning

confidence: 99%

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Electromagnetic Signatures of Human Skin in the Millimeter Wave Band 80-100 GHZ

Owda

Salmon

Rezgui

2018

PIER B

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Abstract-Due to changes in global security requirements attention is turning to new means by which anomalies on the human body might be identified. For security screening systems operating in the millimeter wave band anomalies can be identified by measuring the emissivities of subjects. As the interaction of millimeter waves with the human body is only a fraction of a millimeter into the skin and clothing has a small, but known effect, precise measurement of the emission and reflection of this radiation will allow comparisons with the norm for that region of the body and person category. A technique to measure the human skin emissivity in vivo over the frequency band 80 GHz to 100 GHz is developed and described. The mean emissivity values of the skin of a sample of 60 healthy participants (36 males and 24 females) measured using a 90 GHz calibrated radiometer were found to range from 0.17±0.005 to 0.68±0.005. The lower values of emissivity are a result of measuring particularly thin skin on the inner wrist, volar side of the forearm, and back of hand, whereas higher values of emissivity are results of measuring thick skin on the outer wrist, dorsal surface of the forearm, and palm of hand. The mean differences in the emissivity between Asian and European male participants were calculated to be in the range of 0.04 to 0.11 over all measurement locations. Experimental measurements of the emissivity for male and female participants having normal and high body mass index indicate that the mean differences in the emissivity are in the range of 0.05 to 0.15 for all measurement locations. These results show the quantitative variations in the skin emissivity between locations, gender, and individuals. The mean differences in the emissivity values between dry and wet skin on the palm of hand and back of hand regions were found to be 0.143 and 0.066 respectively. These results confirm that radiometry can, as a non-contact method, identify surfaces attached to the human skin in tens of seconds. These results indicate a route to machine anomaly detection that may increase the through-put speed, the detection probabilities and reduce the false alarm rates in security screening portals.

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Section: Skin Signature For Male and Female Having Normal And High Bosupporting

confidence: 84%

Section: Skin Signature For Male and Female Having Normal And High Bomentioning

confidence: 99%

Electromagnetic Signatures of Human Skin in the Millimeter Wave Band 80-100 GHZ

Owda

Salmon

Rezgui

2018

PIER B

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“…Previous studies did not find any influence of patient characteristics on the accuracy of the FGM, but they only considered MARD. Children with a low BMI have less subcutaneous fat [46] and the MD and MRD were higher in children with a lower BMI. As the sensor has a length of 5 mm [45] and the skin and subcutaneous thickness (surface-to-muscle distance) in the arm has found to be < 4 mm in about 10% of children, especially in those between 4 and 6 years with a low BMI [47], in slender children part of the sensor may be located in the muscle which shows less fluctuations of glucose content [48].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of the FreeStyle® Libre Flash Glucose Monitoring System in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes

et al. 2018

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Background/Aims: The FreeStyle® Libre Flash Glucose Monitoring System (FGM, Abbott) measures glucose concentrations in the interstitial fluid for up to 14 days. It has been approved for use in children aged > 4 years in January 2016. Experience in children is still limited. We evaluated the accuracy and usability of the FGM in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM). Methods: 67 children with type 1 DM (35 girls), aged 4–18 years, were included. Subjects wore a sensor on the back of their upper arm. For the first 14 days, they regularly measured capillary blood glucose (BG) with their usual BG meter (Accu-Chek® Mobile [ACM], Roche [n = 24]; Contour® Next Link [CNL], Bayer [n = 26]; OneTouch® Verio® IQ [OTV], LifeScan [n = 17]) followed by a sensor glucose (SG) scanning. SG readings were compared to BG measurements by consensus error grid (CEG) analysis; the mean difference (MD), the mean relative difference (MRD), the mean absolute difference (MAD), and the mean absolute relative difference (MARD) were calculated. After 14 days, subjects were asked to fill in a questionnaire on the usability of the FGM. Results: 2,626 SG readings were paired with BG results. FGM readings were highly correlated with BG (r = 0.926, p < 0.001). 80.3% of the data pairs were in zone A (= no effect on clinical action) and 18.4% were in zone B (= altered clinical action with little or no effect on the clinical outcome) of the CEG. Overall MD was +7.5 mg/dL; MD varied with the BG meter: ACM +10.4 mg/dL, CNL +14.2 mg/dL, OTV –3.6 mg/dL (p < 0.001). Overall, MARD was 16.7%. We observed a large interindividual variability in the accuracy parameters. MD and MRD were inversely related to BMI (r = –0.261 [p < 0.05]; r = –0.266 [p < 0.05], respectively). MARD was inversely related to age (r = –0.266 [p < 0.05]). Twenty-nine patients (43.3%) reported sensor problems, mainly early detachment of the sensor. Nonetheless, the usability questionnaire indicated high levels of satisfaction. Conclusions: Our results showed a reasonable agreement between the FGM SG readings and capillary BG measurements in children. There was, however, a large interindividual variability. The wearing of the sensor requires special attention. Further studies in children are imperative in order to document the accuracy and safety of the FGM in the paediatric population.

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“…With the exception of 1 black baby in the 6-month-old undernourished group, all infants were mulatto (black and white). Analyses according to gender were not made as differences in skin structure were only expected with the onset of hormonal changes at puberty [13, 18]. …”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comparison of Skin Structural and Functional Parameters in Well-Nourished and Moderately Undernourished Infants

Hughes-Formella¹,

Wunderlich²,

Williams³

et al. 2019

Skin Pharmacol Physiol

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Background: Little is known about the impact of nutrition on the development of skin structure and function in infants. Methods: We investigated epidermal, dermal, and subcutis parameters of aged-matched well-nourished and moderately undernourished infants in this single-center, cross-sectional, noninterventional study using noninvasive methods (skin caliper, 20-MHz sonography, transepidermal water loss, skin pH, and corneometry). Plasma fatty acids were determined as an indicator of nutritional differences. 310 infants from different age groups, i.e., 1 week, 4 weeks, and 6, 9, 12, 24, and 36 months were included. Approximately half of each age group was well-nourished (WHO reference values weight-for-height/length Zscore: –0.75 ≤ Z ≤ 0.75) and the other half was moderately undernourished (–3 ≤ Z < –2). Results: Structural maturational differences in the deeper dermis and subcutis regions of the skin and subtle functional changes in the epidermis were observed in moderately undernourished infants without notable clinical symptoms. Reduced skin barrier function or skin hydration were not observed in the undernourished infants, and skin pH shifted to more acidic values in this group. Conclusion: These findings reveal a greater impact of moderate undernutrition on the development of the dermis and subcutis and suggest that critical epidermal functions such as skin barrier and pH are mostly maintained.

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Effects of Age, Gender, BMI, and Anatomical Site on Skin Thickness in Children and Adults with Diabetes

Cited by 100 publications

References 30 publications

Electromagnetic Signatures of Human Skin in the Millimeter Wave Band 80-100 GHZ

Electromagnetic Signatures of Human Skin in the Millimeter Wave Band 80-100 GHZ

Evaluation of the FreeStyle® Libre Flash Glucose Monitoring System in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes

Comparison of Skin Structural and Functional Parameters in Well-Nourished and Moderately Undernourished Infants

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