“…Human studies showed a significant reduction in Th1:Th2 ratio when isoflurane was compared with propofol. 18 In vitro experiments revealed DNA damage to human peripheral blood lymphocytes in a dose-dependent manner following exposure to halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. Volatile anesthetics are known to upregulate expression of hypoxia-inducible factors, which are important for maintaining normal cellular function in hypoxic conditions but which are also associated with tumorigenesis and poor cancer prognosis.…”