Effect of Chemical and Physical Properties on the In Vitro Degradation of 3D Printed High Resolution Poly(propylene fumarate) Scaffolds

Abstract

Two distinct molecular masses of poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) are combined with an additive manufacturing process to fabricate highly complex scaffolds possessing controlled chemical properties and porous architecture. Scaffolds were manufactured with two polymer molecular masses and two architecture styles. Degradation was assessed in an accelerated in vitro environment. The purpose of the degradation study is not to model or mimic in vivo degradation, but to efficiently compare the effect of modulating scaffold properties. This is the first study addressing degradation of chain-growth synthesized PPF, a process that allows for considerably more control over molecular mass distribution. It demonstrates that, with greater process control, not only is scaffold fabrication reproducible, but the mechanical properties and degradation kinetics can be tailored by altering the physical properties of the scaffold. This is a clear step forward in using PPF to address unmet medical needs while meeting regulatory demands and ultimately obtaining clinical relevancy.

Design and mechanical characterization of solid and highly porous 3D printed poly(propylene fumarate) scaffolds

“…PPF is a bioresorbable and photocrosslinkable polyester [1] and was synthesized via a chain-growth mechanism [32,33]. To reduce the viscosity for 3D printing, PPF (M n = 1500 Da, PDI = 1.6) was diluted with diethyl fumarate (DEF, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) in a 1:1 ratio.…”

Two‐dimensional graphene oxide‐reinforced porous biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for bone tissue engineering

“…56,57 Several studies have reported the application of various 2D graphene nanomaterials for bioimaging, [58][59][60] cancer therapeutics, 61 drug and gene delivery applications. 62,63 Incorporation of these nanomaterials in porous PPF nanocomposites in conjunction with novel manufacturing technologies such as 3D pinting 14,19 can lead to the development of next-generation theranostic scaffolds enabling simultaneous therapy and long-term noninvasive monitoring of tissue regeneration.…”

“…PPF is a biodegradable, biocompatible, and injectable/3D‐printible unsaturated linear polyester, which is extensively used for bone tissue engineering applications . Porous PPF scaffolds lack the mechanical strength necessary for the tissue engineering of load‐bearing bones.…”

“…[9][10][11] PPF is a biodegradable, biocompatible, and injectable/3Dprintible unsaturated linear polyester 12 , which is extensively used for bone tissue engineering applications. [13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Porous PPF scaffolds lack the mechanical strength necessary for the tissue engineering of load-bearing bones. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been reported as effective reinforcing agents for PPF nanocomposites [20][21][22][23] We have previously reported the mechanical properties and in vitro cytocompatibility of various one-and two-dimensional (1D and 2D) carbon and inorganic nanomaterials reinforced nonporous PPF nanocomposites.…”

Ring‐Opening Copolymerization of Maleic Anhydride with Functional Epoxides: Poly(propylene fumarate) Analogues Capable of Post‐Polymerization Modification

“…PPF is resorbable upon degradation and contains an alkene group in its backbone, ag roup which facilitates photochemical crosslinking and 3D printing by stereolithographic methods. [14] PPF has generated substantial interest for use as patient-specific bone scaffolds as its modulus,w hen crosslinked, is near that of cancellous bone. [15] Despite its potential in regenerative medicine,P PF lacks inherent osteoconductive and osteoinductive properties known to stimulate bone growth.…”