Early childhood internalizing problems, externalizing problems and their co-occurrence and (mal)adaptive functioning in emerging adulthood: a 16-year follow-up study

Abstract

Purpose A vast amount of studies suggest that internalizing or externalizing problems are related to individual functioning, and often co-occur. Yet, a focus on their additive and interactive effects is scarce. Furthermore, most research has focused on a limited number of developmental domains and mostly on maladaptive functioning. Therefore, the current prospective study examined whether early childhood (ages 4–8) internalizing and externalizing problems and their interaction were related to a broad range of (mal)adaptive functioning outcomes in emerging adulthood (ages 20–24). Methods Data from the Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality and Development were used. At Time 1 (1999) mothers of 374 children (45% boys) and fathers of 357 children (46% boys) rated internalizing and externalizing problems through the Child Behavior Checklist. Outcomes in emerging adulthood were measured through self-reports 16 years later across the following domains: psychological functioning, social functioning, work, physical health, and self-concept. Results Early externalizing problems were related to maladaptive outcomes on the psychological and social domains. With regard to adaptive functioning, externalizing problems were associated with lower satisfaction regarding general health on the physical domain. Early internalizing problems were not associated with any emerging adulthood outcomes. The interaction of (father reported) internalizing and externalizing problems was related to aggressive behavior. Conclusion Early childhood externalizing problems were associated with maladaptive and adaptive functioning over a time span of 16 years. The results add to studies on the implementation of prevention and intervention programs in early childhood and to the value for developing personalized interventions.

Relationships between Child Development at School Entry and Adolescent Health—A Participatory Systematic Review

“…The findings in relation to mental health are to be expected, with much literature highlighting the continuity of early problems with socio-emotional functioning and later onset of mental health conditions [ 69 ]. The evidence is stronger for early externalising behaviours and their impact on both internalising and externalising behaviours in adolescence, and this is supported by wider literature [ 70 , 71 ]. A finding of this review is that there is more evidence that behaviours such as aggression and hyperactivity pose a risk to future mental health than anxious/withdrawn behaviour, particularly for externalising outcomes.…”

“…A finding of this review is that there is more evidence that behaviours such as aggression and hyperactivity pose a risk to future mental health than anxious/withdrawn behaviour, particularly for externalising outcomes. This finding should be interpreted cautiously because it may be that early internalising behaviours, compared to externalising, are more likely to resolve by early adolescence [ 72 ], or it may be that internalising is harder to identify, whereas externalising behaviours are more obvious and easier for parents and teachers to report, which could lead to less associations being observed for internalising behaviours and consequently less associations found [ 39 , 70 ]. The finding that emotional wellbeing was more closely associated with later internalising may be because emotional stability promotes regulation and mood stability leading to less internalising [ 73 ], but other studies have found that emotional wellbeing (in terms of regulation skills) is associated quite strongly with both internalising and externalising, but particularly so for internalising after the early years [ 74 ].…”

Connectedness to Family, School, and Neighborhood and Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms

“…These conditions have been associated with serious negative outcomes for youth including lower educational achievement, illicit substance use, risky sexual behavior, delinquent behavior, and increased suicide risk [ 6 ]. Beyond this, these internalizing symptoms frequently persist into adulthood and are associated with an increased risk of co-occurring disorders, criminal involvement, lower wage earnings, and early mortality [ 7 ].…”

The association of social skills and behaviour problems with bullying engagement in Portuguese adolescents: From aggression to victimization behaviors

“…Internalizing problems are related to inappropriate or maladjusted control of emotions and cognitions. These are defined by the presence of anxiety/depression symptoms, withdrawn, or somatic complaints (Achenbach, 1966 , 1991 ; Arslan et al, 2020 ). Internalizing difficulties are mainly predictive of victimization behaviors, particularly in girls (Casper & Card, 2016 ; Cosma et al, 2018 ; Zych et al, 2020a ).…”

“…In contrast, externalizing problems refer to behaviors that reflect a negative impact on the environment (Campbell et al, 2000; Eisenberg et al, 2001). Often, externalizing difficulties are characterized by the presence of disruptive and/or aggressive behaviors (Achenbach, 1966 , 1991 ; Arslan et al, 2020 ). Externalizing problems are also strongly connected to bullying engagement (Jenkins & Nickerson, 2017 ).…”