Driving racial profiling research forward: Learning lessons from sentencing research

(Cr)immigrant framing in border areas: decision-making processes of Dutch border police officers

“…Especially during proactive controls that do not require a reasonable suspicion or concrete evidence of any criminal behaviour, officers have little choice but to rely upon categorisations and typologies (Holmberg 2000, Wilson et al 2004, Bowling and Phillips 2007. Faced with limited time and information, streetlevel decision makers may then highlight certain features while ignoring others, thus developing a 'perceptual shorthand to identify certain kinds of people as symbolic assailants' (Skolnick 1966, p. 45; See also Tillyer and Hartley 2010). When this shorthand is influenced by stereotypes there is the possibility that extra-legal factors such as age, ethnicity, gender, race and social class come to inform the decisions, potentially resulting in over-policing of specific groups.…”

“…RNM officers furthermore hold regular police powers and therefore can shift towards criminal law-based powers when suspicion of a criminal fact arises during a control, while there is no accountability mechanism in place to ensure that officers base their stops on immigration-related rationales only (Van der Woude and Van der Leun 2017, Van der Woude and Brouwer 2017). Tillyer and Hartley (2010) claim that general negative sentiments in society towards migrant groups can affect the views held by street-level bureaucrats and therefore lead to prejudices informing the decisions they make. In the Netherlands a discourse has developed in which various ethnic minority groups are linked to crime and other social issues (Eijkman 2010, Svensson andSaharso 2014).…”

Ethnic disparities in the issuance of multiple traffic citations to motorists in a southern suburban police agency

“…Tillyer and Hartley (2010) argued officer experience was influential because of the diverse situations officers encounter, and specifically the exchanges with negative connotations. These situations create a cumulative effect that may impact an officer's decisions against a particular group of people.…”

“…Tillyer and Hartley (2010) argue the research methodology examining racial profiling has evolved which results in enhanced comprehension of the phenomenon. Contemporary examinations explore the dyad between the motorist and officer's race or ethnicity on the outcome; rather than focusing on the racial disparity between the motorists compared to an arbitrary demographic indicator (e.g.…”

Ethnic profiling in the Netherlands? A reflection on expanding preventive powers, ethnic profiling and a changing social and political context

“…This may be expressed directly or indirectly in the decisions of supervisory and/or investigative officials, regarding matters such as who they detain for identity checks, interrogation, security searches and sometimes arrest. Focal concerns and attribution theory in relation to sentencing research have shown that when faced with time and information restraints, judges tend to resort to a 'perceptual shorthand' to make decisions about the dangerousness and risk of recidivism of an offender (Tillyer and Hartley 2010). This shorthand is based on stereotypes and attributions linked to personal characteristics thereby providing an explanation for extralegal factors such as gender, race, ethnicity and social class being influential in sentencing outcomes (Steffensmeier et al 1998).…”