Up to the second half of the 19th century, the American higher education establishment was largely nonexistent. Available institutions were limited to church-related colleges and universities that emphasized a liberal arts education. Professional education and scientific research were not stressed. As the century progressed, an emerging concern for academic freedom resulted in the creation of a number of secular colleges, and the growing importance of science encouraged an emphasis on scientific research. In 1861, Yale University awarded the first PhD in the United States to three students, and in 1872, Harvard University followed. The Johns Hopkins University was established as a graduate school in 1876. Within a few years, scientific and professional education becamc widely available in the United States.American graduate education in psychology has been especially influenced by European graduate education in general and German graduate education in particular. American leaders in academia in the last half of I am indebted to Dr. John Reisman's (1976) volume, A History of Clinical Psychology. for its scholarship, detailed annotation, and appreciation of the extensive history of clinical psychology, which made it possible for me to report various events in a much rounder style than would have been possible otherwise.