Abstract:Currently, the diagnosis of congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) infection in most highly resourced countries is based on clinical suspicion alone. This means only a small proportion of cCMV infections are diagnosed. Identification, through either universal or targeted screening of asymptomatic newborns with cCMV, who would previously have gone undiagnosed, would allow for potential early treatment with antiviral therapy, ongoing audiological surveillance and early intervention if sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL… Show more
“…The most suitable diagnostic methodology is real-time polymerase chain reaction using saliva specimens [51][52][53]. Saliva [54] or dried blood spot PCRs [55] have been used in support of newborn hearing loss screening programmes as they offer the capacity to target asymptomatic neonates "at risk" of developing hearing loss and who may benefit from antiviral treatment or other intervention measures [56][57][58].…”
Section: Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection and Hearing Lossmentioning
Herpesviruses have been isolated from a wide range of hosts including humans—for which, nine species have been designated. The human herpesviruses are highly host adapted and possess the capacity for latency, allowing them to survive in the host for life, effectively hidden from the immune system. This ability of human herpesviruses to modulate the host immune response poses particular challenges for vaccine development but at the same time proves attractive for the application of human herpesvirus vaccines to certain spheres of medicine. In this review, congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection and hearing loss will be described followed by a comment on the status of current vaccine development. Secondly, the association of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) infection with multiple sclerosis (MS) and how EBV vaccination may be of benefit will then be discussed. Prevention of congenital CMV by vaccination is an attractive proposition and several vaccines have been evaluated for potential use. Particularly challenging for the development of CMV vaccines are the needs to prevent primary infection, reinfection, and reactivation at the same time as overcoming the capacity of the virus to generate highly sophisticated immunomodulatory mechanisms. Cost and the practicalities of administering potential vaccines are also significant issues, particularly for low- and middle-income countries, where the burden of disease is greatest. An effective EBV vaccine that could prevent the 200,000 new EBV-associated malignancies which occur globally each year is not currently available. There is increasing interest in developing EBV vaccines to prevent MS and, in view of the association of infectious mononucleosis with MS, reducing childhood infectious mononucleosis is a potential intervention. Currently, there is no licensed EBV vaccine and, in order to progress the development of EBV vaccines for preventing MS, a greater understanding of the association of EBV with MS is required.
“…The most suitable diagnostic methodology is real-time polymerase chain reaction using saliva specimens [51][52][53]. Saliva [54] or dried blood spot PCRs [55] have been used in support of newborn hearing loss screening programmes as they offer the capacity to target asymptomatic neonates "at risk" of developing hearing loss and who may benefit from antiviral treatment or other intervention measures [56][57][58].…”
Section: Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection and Hearing Lossmentioning
Herpesviruses have been isolated from a wide range of hosts including humans—for which, nine species have been designated. The human herpesviruses are highly host adapted and possess the capacity for latency, allowing them to survive in the host for life, effectively hidden from the immune system. This ability of human herpesviruses to modulate the host immune response poses particular challenges for vaccine development but at the same time proves attractive for the application of human herpesvirus vaccines to certain spheres of medicine. In this review, congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection and hearing loss will be described followed by a comment on the status of current vaccine development. Secondly, the association of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) infection with multiple sclerosis (MS) and how EBV vaccination may be of benefit will then be discussed. Prevention of congenital CMV by vaccination is an attractive proposition and several vaccines have been evaluated for potential use. Particularly challenging for the development of CMV vaccines are the needs to prevent primary infection, reinfection, and reactivation at the same time as overcoming the capacity of the virus to generate highly sophisticated immunomodulatory mechanisms. Cost and the practicalities of administering potential vaccines are also significant issues, particularly for low- and middle-income countries, where the burden of disease is greatest. An effective EBV vaccine that could prevent the 200,000 new EBV-associated malignancies which occur globally each year is not currently available. There is increasing interest in developing EBV vaccines to prevent MS and, in view of the association of infectious mononucleosis with MS, reducing childhood infectious mononucleosis is a potential intervention. Currently, there is no licensed EBV vaccine and, in order to progress the development of EBV vaccines for preventing MS, a greater understanding of the association of EBV with MS is required.
“…Türkiye'de her yenidoğan için rutin bir uygulama olarak işitme testiyle tarama yapılmaktadır. İşitme kaybı saptanan yenidoğanların konjenital CMV enfeksiyonu için taranması (hedefli tarama) ve tedavi gereksinimi yönünden değerlendirilmesi gerekmektedir 44 . Bununla birlikte, CMV ilişkili işitme kaybı olan bebeklerin çoğunluğunun doğumda normal işitme duyusuna sahip olması ve bu bebeklerde ilerleyen dönemde geç başlangıçlı (olguların %50'sinden fazlasında ilerleyici olan) işitme kaybı gelişmesi nedeniyle ilk tarama sonuçlarının işitme kaybı sıklığını gerçekte olduğundan düşük gösterebileceği unutulmamalıdır 4,44 .…”
“…Doğuştan enfekte olmayan çocuklarda, virüs atılımı genellikle 1-2 yaşta zirveye ulaşıp, ardından beş yaşına kadar düşüş eğilimi gösterirken, bu çocuklar yakın temasta bulundukları diğer çocuklara CMV bulaşında ve virüsün toplumsal yayılımında önemli bir rezervuar niteliğinde kabul edil-Şekil 2. KCMV enfeksiyonları ve ilişkili sekellerin önlenmesinde koruyucu uygulamalar ve olgu yönetiminde temel basamaklar (2,21,37,(44)(45)(46) mektedirler 5,6 . İki yaşın altında gündüz bakımevlerine devam eden çocuğu olan annelerin yaklaşık %30'unda bir yıl içinde serokonversiyon görülmekte, birden fazla çocuğu olan kadınlar ise daha yüksek bir risk taşımaktadırlar 2,14 .…”
Section: A Standart Koruyucu öNlemlerunclassified
“…Asemptomatik enfekte bebeklerin de uzun dönem sekel riski altında olması dikkate alındığında, annenin serolojik durumuna bakılmaksızın tüm yenidoğanların CMV DNA testleri ile rutin tarama programları kapsamında taranması (universal tarama) önem arz etmektedir. Görülme sıklığı, tanı ve tedavi olanaklarının varlığı ve olumsuz etkilerinin önlenebilir/azaltılabilir olması ile rutin yenidoğan tarama testleri arasında yer alması geren konjenital CMV'nin tarama programlarına dahil edilmesinin önündeki en önemli engel maliyet sorunu iken, son dönemde yapılan çalışmalarda yenidoğan CMV taramasının uzun dönemde sağladığı kamu yararı ve tasarruf ile maliyet-etkin bir uygulama olduğu gösterilmiştir 44,[55][56][57] .…”
“…31 Currently, no countries in the world have established universal cCMV screening, although legislative efforts in a number of states in the United States are growing, and select states (Connecticut, Utah, Iowa) require screening for infants who fail their newborn hearing screen, known as targeted screening. 40,72,73 While targeted screening will identify many infected infants, a number of infants will have delayed-onset hearing loss, and therefore their diagnoses will be missed. Universal screening would allow for careful monitoring of audiologic or neurodevelopmental sequelae that could then be treated with antivirals, developmental resources, or devices to aid hearing.…”
Background: Congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) is the leading cause of nongenetic congenital hearing loss in much of the world and a leading cause of neurodevelopmental disabilities. Infected babies can be born to women who are seropositive and seronegative prior to pregnancy, and the incidence is approximately 0.6%-0.7% in the United States. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and hearing loss can be delayed in onset and progressive. Methods: We reviewed the literature to summarize the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and future directions of cCMV. Results: The best way to diagnose the infection is with polymerase chain reaction of urine or saliva within 3 weeks after birth, followed by a repeat confirmatory test if positive. Moderately to severely symptomatic neonates should be treated for 6 months with valganciclovir, and some practitioners also choose to treat infants who have isolated hearing loss only. Treatment is not recommended for asymptomatic infants. All infected infants should be screened for hearing loss and neurodevelopmental sequelae. Universal and targeted screening may be cost effective. Currently, no vaccine is commercially available, although multiple candidates are under study. Conclusion: Congenitally acquired cytomegalovirus is found in all communities around the world with a disease burden that is greater than many other well-known diseases. Advances are being made in prevention and treatment; however, improved awareness of the disease among clinicians and patients is needed.
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