Does Each Menstrual Cycle Elicit a Distinct Effect on Olfactory and Gustatory Perception?

Abstract

The obesity pandemic has brought forth a scientific interest in food intake and sensory perception interactions. Olfactory perception and gustatory perception are very complex and under the influence of many factors, including the menstrual cycle. This study aims to clarify conflicting findings on the influence of the menstrual cycle on olfactory and gustatory perception. Women were assessed during four consecutive phases of one complete cycle (mid-follicular, ovulatory, mid-luteal, and late luteal phases (N = 21)), in contrast to women measured across the same phases belonging to two menstrual cycles (N = 29). Additional control groups were men (N = 17), postmenopausal women (N = 14), oral contraceptive users (N = 10), and women with an anovulatory cycle (N = 8). Olfactory threshold, odor discrimination, and identification were tested using the “Sniffin Sticks“ test kit. Suprathreshold intensity and hedonic ratings for sweet, salty, sour, and bitter solutions were assessed. One-way ANOVA and ANOVA for repeated measurements was applied in the analysis, along with linear and trigonometric data fitting and linear mixed models. Linear increases in olfactory discrimination, identification, and overall olfactory performance were observed only in women followed across a complete menstrual cycle. Compared to other groups, these women displayed a cyclic pattern characterized by a predilection for sweet solution; reduced distaste for salty and sour solutions; and increased intensity perception of salty, sour, and bitter solutions towards the end of the cycle. These results suggest that a distinct hormonal milieu of a complete menstrual cycle may be affecting both olfactory and gustatory perception.

Hormonal contraceptive use, menstrual cycle characteristics and training/nutrition related profiles of elite, sub-elite and amateur athletes and exercisers: One size is unlikely to fit all

“…Such data agree with recent cross-sectional, laboratory and qualitative studies suggesting that food choices are not apparently affected by contraceptive use. 7,41–45 In relation to specific taste profiles, we also observed that the present respondents reported changes in taste preferences during pre-menses (14–35%) or menses itself (15–25%), where the largest shift was in preference towards sweet foods (reported by 60% of all respondents) such as chocolate and other confectionary (reported by 25% of all respondents). Interestingly and despite consisting of a mixed contraceptive status cohort, HC participants accounted for 32% and 35% of responses for menses and 40% and 27% of responses for pre-menses across perceived taste change and food cravings, respectively, with only one respondent specifically referring to this as a withdrawal bleed.…”

Altered Taste Function in Young Individuals With Type 1 Diabetes

“…Furthermore, while most of the literature has focused on sweet taste impairment in diabetes ( 4 , 10 ), we did not evaluate this taste modality. Moreover, we did not assess the possible role of other factors that may influence taste function, as well as genetic polymorphisms in taste receptor genes ( 30 ), oral microbiota ( 31 ) and hormonal fluctuation throughout the menstrual cycle ( 32 ).…”

Individual characteristics, including olfactory efficiency, age, body mass index, smoking and the sex hormones status, and food preferences of women in Poland

“…Previous studies have shown that taste perception, food preferences, and food cravings in women are not uniform across the menstrual cycle ( Gorczyca et al, 2016 ). Food preferences and, therefore, the sense of taste and smell, are influenced by the phases of the menstrual cycle ( Stanić et al., 2021 ). However, available studies are inconclusive.…”

“…In addition, it was demonstrated that the olfactory sensitivity in women using hormonal contraception was comparable to the olfactory sensitivity in women in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. In one study ( Stanić et al., 2021 ). women who used oral contraceptives rated higher the sweet taste of sucrose.…”