Disturbance of wildlife by outdoor winter recreation: allostatic stress response and altered activity–energy budgets

Abstract

Abstract. Anthropogenic disturbance of wildlife is of growing conservation concern, but we lack comprehensive approaches of its multiple negative effects. We investigated several effects of disturbance by winter outdoor sports on free-ranging alpine Black Grouse by simultaneously measuring their physiological and behavioral responses. We experimentally flushed radio-tagged Black Grouse from their snow burrows, once a day, during several successive days, and quantified their stress hormone levels (corticosterone metabolites in feces [FCM] collected from individual snow burrows). We also measured feeding time allocation (activity budgets reconstructed from radio-emitted signals) in response to anthropogenic disturbance. Finally, we estimated the related extra energy expenditure that may be incurred: based on activity budgets, energy expenditure was modeled from measures of metabolism obtained from captive birds subjected to different ambient temperatures. The pattern of FCM excretion indicated the existence of a funneling effect as predicted by the allostatic theory of stress: initial stress hormone concentrations showed a wide inter-individual variation, which decreased during experimental flushing. Individuals with low initial pre-flushing FCM values augmented their concentration, while individuals with high initial FCM values lowered it. Experimental disturbance resulted in an extension of feeding duration during the following evening foraging bout, confirming the prediction that Black Grouse must compensate for the extra energy expenditure elicited by human disturbance. Birds with low initial baseline FCM concentrations were those that spent more time foraging. These FCM excretion and foraging patterns suggest that birds with high initial FCM concentrations might have been experiencing a situation of allostatic overload. The energetic model provides quantitative estimates of extra energy expenditure. A longer exposure to ambient temperatures outside the shelter of snow burrows, following disturbance, could increase the daily energy expenditure by .10%, depending principally on ambient temperature and duration of exposure. This study confirms the predictions of allostatic theory and, to the best of our knowledge, constitutes the first demonstration of a funneling effect. It further establishes that winter recreation activities incur costly allostatic behavioral and energetic adjustments, which call for the creation of winter refuge areas together with the implementation of visitor-steering measures for sensitive wildlife.

The importance of seasonal environmental factors in the foraging habitat selection of Alpine Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus alpestris

“…In addition to its insulation property in winter, which is appreciated by overwintering Alpine wildlife (Arlettaz et al . ), the snowpack plays another crucial ecological role in spring, when its melt provides much of the water supply in subalpine and alpine ecosystems (Beniston , Klein et al . ).…”

Promoting Healthy Lifestyle and Well-Being in Adolescents through Outdoor Physical Activity

“…However, there could be eventual negative effects of large scale organized PA in nature on the environment [15,16], and these negative effects need to be eliminated to the maximum possible extent. Indeed, we need to exploit the positive effects of outdoor PA to change the lifestyle of adolescents, because experiences gained in nature are much more effective in promoting a healthy lifestyle than presenting facts regarding negative health trends.…”

Winter recreation and Canada lynx: reducing conflict through niche partitioning

“…), and black grouse ( Tetrao tetrix ) exhibited elevated corticosterone metabolites (a stress hormone) when experimentally flushed by skiers (Arlettaz et al. ). However, we were unable to use experimental approaches given the extreme mountainous topography of the southern Rocky Mountains and the extensive home ranges of Canada lynx at the southern range periphery (Aubry et al.…”

“…, Richard and Côté ), elevated responses in stress‐induced corticosteroid (Arlettaz et al. , , Tablado and Jenni ), and high concentrations of wildlife on wintering areas. Developed winter recreation at resorts can also impact wildlife through habitat fragmentation associated with recreation infrastructure (e.g., ski lifts, lodges, and ski runs; Coppes et al.…”