Different Types of Cell Death Induced by Enterotoxins

Abstract

The infection of bacterial organisms generally causes cell death to facilitate microbial invasion and immune escape, both of which are involved in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases. In addition to the intercellular infectious processes, pathogen-produced/secreted enterotoxins (mostly exotoxins) are the major weapons that kill host cells and cause diseases by inducing different types of cell death, particularly apoptosis and necrosis. Blocking these enterotoxins with synthetic drugs and vaccines is important for treating patients with infectious diseases. Studies of enterotoxin-induced apoptotic and necrotic mechanisms have helped us to create efficient strategies to use against these well-characterized cytopathic toxins. In this article, we review the induction of the different types of cell death from various bacterial enterotoxins, such as staphylococcal enterotoxin B, staphylococcal alpha-toxin, Panton-Valentine leukocidin, alpha-hemolysin of Escherichia coli, Shiga toxins, cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1, heat-labile enterotoxins, and the cholera toxin, Vibrio cholerae. In addition, necrosis caused by pore-forming toxins, apoptotic signaling through cross-talk pathways involving mitochondrial damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and lysosomal injury is discussed.

Genetic Underpinnings of Host Manipulation byOphiocordycepsas Revealed by Comparative Transcriptomics

“…Heat-labile enterotoxins of E. coli transfer an enzymatic domain into host cells to modify GTP-binding proteins and interfere with GPCRs and subsequent intracellular signaling through increased cyclic AMP levels. This process eventually leads to cell dysfunction and apoptosis (reviewed in Lin et al 2010;Mangmool and Kurose 2011). Other microbial toxins that disrupt GPCRs or intracellular signaling showcase pathogenic effects that suggest toxins could benefit Ophiocordyceps in infecting and manipulating host ants.…”

Staphylococcus aureus toxins

“…Enterotoxins, also produced by some other bacteria, share a common structure comprising a two-domain fold, a long central alpha-helix, the characteristic N-terminal “oligosaccharide/oligonucleotide fold” with beta-barrel structure and a C-terminal “beta grasp” motif. The mechanisms by which staphylococcal enterotoxins work are not well known, but may include the activation of cytokine release, ultimately causing cell death by apoptosis [30]. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) is considered a biological warfare weapon [31].…”

Targeting Staphylococcus aureus Toxins: A Potential form of Anti-Virulence Therapy

“…There are more than 20 identified SEs to date: they are differentiated based on antigenic heterogeneity (SEA—SE l V) [ 31 ]. The SEs are superantigens which trigger T-cell activation and proliferation; their mode of action probably includes activation of cytokine release and cell death via apoptosis and potentially lethal toxic shock syndrome [ 32 , 33 ]. Nevertheless, even though the superantigenic activities of SEs have been well characterized, the mode of action(s) leading to emesis and diarrhea is still unclear.…”