Different Cultural Concepts of Past, Present, and Future^†

Temporal experience.

“…In an approach which may also be characterized as field-theoretical, Lewin (1946Lewin ( , 1951 was concerned with time perspective as a dimension of the "life space" and refers briefly to a formulation which might account for its development. In another reference to this topic, Lewin (1942) suggests that the social environment in which an individual lives may materially influence his time perspective-a view also discussed by Smith (1952). If a person lives in a social environment which is autocratic, for example, the future is decided and structured by the leader.…”

Time Orientation in the United States, China, and Mexico

“…However, envisionality may extend to both the past and the future. For example, the Hindu and Chinese cultures have representations that extend far backward to the past and forward to the future (Smith 1952).…”

A study in time orientation: The relation between memory for past experience and orientation to the future.

“…The concept of time orientation as a dimension which contributes significantly to the understanding of the individual (both alone and as a member of a group) has long been proposed by scientists with diverse interests in the field of human behavior (Balken, 1943;Lewin, 1942Lewin, , 1946Oberndorf, 1941;Sturt, 192S). Anthropologists and sociologists have shown that cultures, at various phases in their existence, as well as various social classes within one culture, tend to entertain temporal orientations unique to themselves, which serve to shape, organize, and control communal activities (Arieti, 1947;Ketchum, 1951;Smith, 1952;Werner, 1948). Russell takes the view that civilizations mature in a manner parallel to individuals, by gradually abandoning activities which are oriented toward short-term impulse gratification and taking up instead functions which demand foresight, delay, and synchronization of group activities, that is, a future-oriented time sense (Arieti, 1947).…”