Differences between young and older adults in unity and diversity of executive functions

Glisky, Elizabeth L.; Alexander, Gene E.; Hou, Mingzhu; Kawa, Kevin; Woolverton, Cindy; Zigman, Erika K.; Nguyen, Lauren; Haws, Kari A.; Figueredo, Aurelio J.; Ryan, Lee

doi:10.1080/13825585.2020.1830936

Cited by 17 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 61 publications

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“…Finally, we would like to re-emphasize that the failure to find effects of practice or cognitive reserve in executive function very likely depends on the specific tests and processes. Executive function tasks rely on multiple processes, and although there may be a common factor across tests, there are clearly several different executive control processes grouped under the banner of executive function (e.g., Miyake et al, 2000 ; Glisky et al, 2021 ). Some of these may be modifiable by cognitive reserve or susceptible to practice, others may not.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Episodic Memory and Executive Function Are Differentially Affected by Retests but Similarly Affected by Age in a Longitudinal Study of Normally-Aging Older Adults

Glisky

Woolverton

McVeigh

et al. 2022

Front. Aging Neurosci.

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Episodic memory and executive function are two cognitive domains that have been studied extensively in older adults and have been shown to decline in normally-aging older individuals. However, one of the problems with characterizing cognitive changes in longitudinal studies has been separating effects attributable to normal aging from effects created by repeated testing or practice. In the present study, 166 people aged 65 and older were enrolled over several years and tested at least 3 times at variable intervals (M = 3.2 yrs). The cognitive measures were composite scores. Each composite was made up of five neuropsychological tests, previously identified through factor analysis. For one pair of composite scores, variance attributable to age was removed from each subtest through regression analyses before z-scores were computed, creating two age-corrected composites. A second pair of composites were not age-corrected. Using linear mixed-effects models, we first explored retest effects for each cognitive domain, independent of age, using the age-corrected composites. We then modeled aging effects using the age-uncorrected composites after subtracting out retest effects. Results indicated significant retest effects for memory but not for executive function, such that memory performance improved across the three testing sessions. When these practice effects were removed from the age-uncorrected data, effects of aging were evident for both executive and memory function with significant declines over time. We also explored several individual difference variables including sex, IQ, and age at the initial testing session and across time. Although sex and IQ affected performance on both cognitive factors at the initial test, neither was related to practice effects, although young-older adults tended to benefit from practice to a greater extent than old-older adults. In addition, people with higher IQs showed slower age-related declines in memory, but no advantages in executive function. These findings suggest that (a) aging affects both memory and executive function similarly, (b) higher IQ, possibly reflecting cognitive reserve, may slow age-related declines in memory, and (c) practice through repeated testing enhances performance in memory particularly in younger-older adults, and may therefore mask aging effects if not taken into account.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Episodic Memory and Executive Function Are Differentially Affected by Retests but Similarly Affected by Age in a Longitudinal Study of Normally-Aging Older Adults

Glisky

Woolverton

McVeigh

et al. 2022

Front. Aging Neurosci.

Self Cite

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“…A number of subsequent studies have supported the three factors of shifting, inhibition and updating presented by Miyake et al 42 by reporting similar three factor solutions from a series of confirmatory factor analyses of diverse cognitive tasks 45,61,72,74 . Other similar confirmatory approaches have resulted in different factor solutions depending on the age group that was investigated [75][76][77][78][79] . To further understand the heterogeneity of findings reported in the literature and the divergence between the results of the EFA in the current study and previous conceptualization, it is important to note here that there is a fundamental difference between confirmatory and exploratory approaches in terms of their use to identify latent factors.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A machine learning approach for the factorization of psychometric data with application to the Delis Kaplan Executive Function System

Camilleri

Eickhoff

Weis

et al. 2021

Sci Rep

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While a replicability crisis has shaken psychological sciences, the replicability of multivariate approaches for psychometric data factorization has received little attention. In particular, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) is frequently promoted as the gold standard in psychological sciences. However, the application of EFA to executive functioning, a core concept in psychology and cognitive neuroscience, has led to divergent conceptual models. This heterogeneity severely limits the generalizability and replicability of findings. To tackle this issue, in this study, we propose to capitalize on a machine learning approach, OPNMF (Orthonormal Projective Non-Negative Factorization), and leverage internal cross-validation to promote generalizability to an independent dataset. We examined its application on the scores of 334 adults at the Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS), while comparing to standard EFA and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). We further evaluated the replicability of the derived factorization across specific gender and age subsamples. Overall, OPNMF and PCA both converge towards a two-factor model as the best data-fit model. The derived factorization suggests a division between low-level and high-level executive functioning measures, a model further supported in subsamples. In contrast, EFA, highlighted a five-factor model which reflects the segregation of the D-KEFS battery into its main tasks while still clustering higher-level tasks together. However, this model was poorly supported in the subsamples. Thus, the parsimonious two-factors model revealed by OPNMF encompasses the more complex factorization yielded by EFA while enjoying higher generalizability. Hence, OPNMF provides a conceptually meaningful, technically robust, and generalizable factorization for psychometric tools.

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“…with age, and how these cognitive changes may interact with an individual’s creative potential, activities, and achievements. Presently, it remains unclear whether specific aspects of executive function may be more vulnerable (or resilient) to cognitive decline, though some evidence suggests that unique subcomponents of executive function become integrated into one common executive function factor with advancing age—a dedifferentiation that reflects widespread disruptions in speeded, goal-directed tasks, and a compensatory tendency to engage preserved knowledge representations over limited cognitive resources (Glisky et al, 2020; Spreng et al, 2017). This is a fruitful area for empirical investigation as long-term exercise participation has been consistently associated with improvements in global executive functioning among cognitively healthy and cognitively impaired older adults (Gomes-Osman et al, 2018).…”

Section: The Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience Of Creativity In A...mentioning

confidence: 99%

Long live creativity: Exploring the exercise-creative cognition link in later life.

Frith¹

2022

Translational Issues in Psychological Science

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Substantial evidence has demonstrated a favorable link between exercise and cognitive health outcomes in older adulthood. Given this widespread relationship, it is of critical importance to examine exercise participation as a practical lifestyle approach that may influence creative cognition across the life span, and particularly in aging populations. This article explores the prospective impacts of exercise on creative thinking in later life, with a specific focus on neurobiological and executive functioning perspectives. Translational recommendations for healthy lifestyle interventions will also be proposed to guide future research aiming to better our understanding of mechanisms underlying exercise and creativity, and to identify individual differences in creative cognition associated with aging. Exercise may be one viable strategy for facilitating creative navigation of aging-associated challenges, such as maintaining functional independence and seeking novel opportunities that enrich quality of life.What is the significance of this article for the general public?Physical exercise may preserve mental and physical function as we age. Creative thinking is one of humanity's most valued mental abilities; however, very little research has investigated the role of exercise in late-life creativity. Informed by neuroscientific and behavioral evidence, this article discusses the potential for exercise participation to support creative thinking in older adulthood and proposes translational recommendations to guide future research on this underexplored topic.

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Differences between young and older adults in unity and diversity of executive functions

Cited by 17 publications

References 61 publications

Episodic Memory and Executive Function Are Differentially Affected by Retests but Similarly Affected by Age in a Longitudinal Study of Normally-Aging Older Adults

Episodic Memory and Executive Function Are Differentially Affected by Retests but Similarly Affected by Age in a Longitudinal Study of Normally-Aging Older Adults

A machine learning approach for the factorization of psychometric data with application to the Delis Kaplan Executive Function System

Long live creativity: Exploring the exercise-creative cognition link in later life.

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