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SummaryData analysis workflows in many scientific domains have become increasingly complex and flexible. To assess the impact of this flexibility on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) results, the same dataset was independently analyzed by 70 teams, testing nine ex-ante hypotheses. The flexibility of analytic approaches is exemplified by the fact that no two teams chose identical workflows to analyze the data. This flexibility resulted in sizeable variation in hypothesis test results, even for teams whose statistical maps were highly correlated at intermediate stages of their analysis pipeline. Variation in reported results was related to several aspects of analysis methodology. Importantly, meta-analytic approaches that aggregated information across teams yielded significant consensus in activated regions across teams. Furthermore, prediction markets of researchers in the field revealed an overestimation of the likelihood of significant findings, even by researchers with direct knowledge of the dataset. Our findings show that analytic flexibility can have substantial effects on scientific conclusions, and demonstrate factors related to variability in fMRI. The results emphasize the importance of validating and sharing complex analysis workflows, and demonstrate the need for multiple analyses of the same data. Potential approaches to mitigate issues related to analytical variability are discussed.

Neuroimaging evidence suggests that executive functions (EF) depend on brain regions that are not closely tied to specific cognitive demands but rather to a wide range of behaviors. A multiple-demand (MD) system has been proposed, consisting of regions showing conjoint activation across multiple demands. Additionally, a number of studies defining networks specific to certain cognitive tasks suggest that the MD system may be composed of a number of sub-networks each subserving specific roles within the system. We here provide a robust definition of an extended MDN (eMDN) based on task-dependent and task-independent functional connectivity analyses seeded from regions previously shown to be convergently recruited across neuroimaging studies probing working memory, attention and inhibition, i.e., the proposed key components of EF. Additionally, we investigated potential sub-networks within the eMDN based on their connectional and functional similarities. We propose an eMDN network consisting of a core whose integrity should be crucial to performance of most operations that are considered higher cognitive or EF. This then recruits additional areas depending on specific demands.

Previous studies helped unraveling the functional architecture of the human cerebral cortex. However, a comprehensive functional segregation of right lateral prefrontal cortex is missing. Here, we delineated cortical clusters in right area 44 and 45 based on their task-constrained whole-brain activation patterns across neuroimaging experiments obtained from a large database. We identified 5 clusters that differed with respect to their coactivation patterns, which were consistent with resting-state functional connectivity patterns of an independent dataset. Two clusters in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) were functionally associated with action inhibition and execution, while two anterior clusters were related to reasoning and social cognitive processes. A fifth cluster was associated with spatial attention. Strikingly, the functional organization of the right IFG can thus be characterized by a posterior-to-anterior axis with action-related functions on the posterior and cognition-related functions on the anterior end. We observed further subdivisions along a dorsal-to-ventral axis in posterior IFG between action execution and inhibition, and in anterior IFG between reasoning and social cognition. The different clusters were integrated in distinct large-scale networks for various cognitive processes. These results provide evidence for a general organization of cognitive processes along axes spanning from more automatic to more complex cognitive processes.

Both social and material rewards play a crucial role in daily life and function as strong incentives for various goal-directed behaviors. However, it remains unclear whether the incentive effects of social and material reward are supported by common or distinct neural circuits. Here, we have addressed this issue by quantitatively synthesizing and comparing neural signatures underlying social (21 contrasts, 207 foci, 696 subjects) and monetary (94 contrasts, 1083 foci, 2060 subjects) reward anticipation. We demonstrated that social and monetary reward anticipation engaged a common neural circuit consisting of the ventral tegmental area, ventral striatum, anterior insula, and supplementary motor area, which are intensively connected during both task and resting states. Functional decoding findings indicate that this generic neural pathway mediates positive value, motivational relevance, and action preparation during reward anticipation, which together motivate individuals to prepare well for the response to the upcoming target. Our findings support the *

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While there is a clear link between impairments of executive functions (EFs), i.e. cognitive control mechanisms that facilitate goal-directed behavior, and speech problems, it is so far unclear exactly which of the complex subdomains of EFs most strongly contribute to speech performance, as measured by verbal fluency (VF) tasks. Furthermore, the impact of intra-individual variability is largely unknown. This study on healthy participants (n = 235) shows that the use of a relevance vector machine approach allows for the prediction of VF performance from EF scores. Based on a comprehensive set of EF scores, results identified cognitive flexibility and inhibition as well as processing speed as strongest predictors for VF performance, but also highlighted a modulatory influence of fluctuating hormone levels. These findings demonstrate that speech production performance is strongly linked to specific EF subdomains, but they also suggest that inter-individual differences should be taken into account. Executive functions (EFs) refer to a set of cognitive processes that allow for goal-directed behavior through the regulation of various cognitive subprocesses. Since EFs permeate behavior, they also impact daily activities as well as social and personal development, including school or job success 1. The importance and pervasiveness of EFs has led different fields of study to investigate these control mechanisms with the goal of differentiating the various subdomains of EFs. This, in turn, has resulted in a number of different conceptualizations based on different approaches, all attempting to subdivide EFs into different domains. While a consensus does not yet exist about how exactly to subdivide and name EFs, there is general agreement that there are three core EFs: (1) cognitive flexibility, (2) working memory and (3) inhibition 1 (but see Karr et al. 2,3). Higher-order EFs, such as reasoning, planning and problem solving, are then built on the basis of these subdomains. The various sub-domains of EFs have been shown to be impaired in a number of neurological and psychiatric diseases, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 4 , Parkinson's disease 5 , depression 6 and schizophrenia 7. Different diseases present their own typical EF deficits and clinical diagnosis attempts to assess the specific patterns of the disease. For example, in the case of Parkinson's disease, patients suffer from difficulties in dual-tasking which is reflected in the deficient combination of memorizing and manipulation of thoughts and tasks 8 but also in impaired speech characterized by semantic paraphasias and reduced word fluency due to a lack of EFs 5,9. To assess these symptoms different test batteries have been developed. These batteries, which include tests tapping into the different EF sub-domains, are used for neuropsychological assessment in both clinical settings and lab-based environments. Commonly used batteries are the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) and the Vienna Test System, both of which offer a w...

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