Dietary Energy Density Determined by Eight Calculation Methods in a Nationally Representative United States Population

Abstract

Dietary energy density [kcal/g (kJ/g)] influences energy intake under controlled laboratory conditions. Little is known about the energy density of the diets of free-living persons. Because energy density investigations are a relatively new endeavor, there are neither standard calculation methods nor published nationally representative values. This paper examines the calculation of energy density based on systematic exclusion of beverage categories, presents data on variability, and compares values by sex, age, and race/ethnicity in a representative sample of U.S. adults. Mean daily dietary energy density values for adults (aged >19 y) were calculated using two 24-h recalls from the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 1994-1996 based on food, food and liquid meal replacements, food and alcohol, food and juice, food and milk, food and juice and milk, food and energy-containing beverages, and food and all beverages. Energy density varied by calculation method, ranging from 0.94 to 1.85 kcal/g (3.93-7.74 kJ/g). Intraindividual-to-interindividual CV ratios were highest for the food and energy-containing beverages calculation. Men reported diets with a higher energy density than women for all calculation methods (P < 0.0001). There were differences by race/ethnicity and an inverse linear trend for age. These data indicate that beverage inclusion schemes should be clearly defined when reporting energy density values. In epidemiologic studies, calculations based on food and all beverages and food and energy-containing beverages may diminish associations with outcome variables. These nationally representative data, which provide an important frame of reference for other studies, indicate that dietary energy density differs by sex, age, and race/ethnicity.

Dietary energy density increases during early childhood irrespective of familial predisposition to obesity: results from a prospective cohort study

“…Previous cross-sectional data suggested that ED from freely selected diets reaches its peak during adolescence and then declines during adulthood. 16 A comparison of the present findings with those of the study by Ledikwe et al 17 reveals that children in our cohort consumed a diet that was considerably higher in ED than that of adults in their national sample. The mean ED for adults419 years old for the categories ED (food only), ED (food and milk) and ED (food and all beverages) were 1.85, 1.68 and 0.94 kcal/g, respectively.…”

“…Most research on the effects of ED on intake was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions; relatively few studies characterized the ED of the self-selected diets of adults [12][13][14][15]17 or children 14,16 consuming meals ad libitum in the free-living environment. Two prior crosssectional studies characterized changes in self-selected dietary ED across the lifespan.…”

“…It has been only recently that more specific calculation methods have been proposed. 17 No prospective study has assessed developmental changes in self-selected dietary ED, while also taking into account familial predisposition to obesity or children's weight status. If obesity-promoting genes exert their influence through dietary ED, children born at high risk for obesity would be expected to self-select a diet that is higher in ED compared with children born at low risk for obesity.…”

“…The second aim of the study was to characterize the short-term (i.e., 2-3 days) stability of dietary ED (with and without beverages) in high-and low-risk children. The recent publication of similar data in adults 17 provided the impetus to compare day-to-day variability in ED between adult and pediatric populations. The third aim of the study was to examine the relationship between dietary ED and measures of children's weight status (BMI z-score, percent body fat and waist circumference).…”

Dietary glycaemic index, glycaemic load and subsequent changes of weight and waist circumference in European men and women

“…Drinks were not included in the calculation. 32 Under-reporting of energy intake was defined as EI:BMR o1.1. 33 BMR was estimated using the Harris-Benedict equation.…”