Diagnostic and Therapeutic Potential for HNP-1, HBD-1 and HBD-4 in Pregnant Women with COVID-19

Abstract

Pregnancy is characterized by significant immunological changes and a cytokine profile, as well as vitamin deficiencies that can cause problems for the correct development of a fetus. Defensins are small antimicrobial peptides that are part of the innate immune system and are involved in several biological activities. Following that, this study aims to compare the levels of various cytokines and to investigate the role of defensins between pregnant women with confirmed COVID-19 infection and pregnant women without any defined risk factor. TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-2 and IL-10, β-defensins, have been evaluated by gene expression in our population. At the same time, by ELISA assay IL-6, IL-8, defensin alpha 1, defensin beta 1 and defensin beta 4 have been measured. The data obtained show that mothers affected by COVID-19 have an increase in pro-inflammatory factors (TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8) compared to controls; this increase could generate a sort of “protection of the fetus” from virus attacks. Contemporarily, we have an increase in the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and an increase in AMPs, which highlights how the mother’s body is responding to the viral attack. These results allow us to hypothesize a mechanism of “trafficking” of antimicrobial peptides from the mother to the fetus that would help the fetus to protect itself from the infection in progress.

Integrated Bioinformatics Analysis Reveals Novel miRNA as Biomarkers Associated with Preeclampsia

“…At the same time, it is now known that miRNAs play a fundamental role as next-generation biomarkers [ 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. The miRNAs being measurable through biological fluids and regulating numerous cellular targets represent “the gold standard of biomarkers” in pathologies in which a rapid prognosis and constant monitoring are required [ 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ].…”

“…The search for stable miRNAs in the two tissues mainly involved in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia aims to employ these miRNAs as specific and sensitive biomarkers. Indeed, the biomarkers used in diagnosing and monitoring multifactorial disorders must be peculiar [ 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ].…”

“…These findings define an extraordinary miRNA-based non-hormonal means of communication between the placenta and the foetus-maternal compartments [ 57 ]. Consequently, the trafficking between maternal and foetal blood is of fundamental importance for monitoring both the state of health of the mother and the foetus [ 52 ]; therefore, the identification of stable miRNAs in common between the placenta and the blood helps monitor PE and the correct development of the foetus.…”

Roles of TGF-β1 in Viral Infection during Pregnancy: Research Update and Perspectives

“…Enhanced expression or association with an elevated concentration of TGF-β1 in different viral infections have been thought or reported as a result of system or local immune response to protect against viral pathogens such as IAV, HIV, SARS-CoV-2, hepatitis E virus, chikungunya virus, Rift Valley Fever Virus, etc. [ 217 , 218 , 219 , 220 , 221 , 222 , 223 ]. However, its functions related to the viral infection and the viral life cycle have not always been well addressed, including the viruses of the typical ToRCH pathogens and other known potentially transplacental transmissions, or recently emerging viruses such as ZIKV and SARS-CoV-2.…”

An Overview of the Potentialities of Antimicrobial Peptides Derived from Natural Sources

“…Frog-skin-derived peptide AR-23 and some of its derivatives can act against the viral surfaces of all enveloped viruses (i.e., coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2; paramyxoviruses; and herpesvirus) [ 212 , 213 ].…”