Developments in soluble lead flow batteries and remaining challenges: An illustrated review

Abstract

The soluble-lead flow battery (SLFB) utilises methanesulfonic acid, an electrolyte in which Pb(II) ions are highly soluble. During charge, solid lead and lead dioxide layers are electrodeposited at the negative and positive electrodes respectively. During discharge, the deposits are electrochemically dissolved back into the recirculating electrolyte. The cell is normally undivided, which greatly reduces design complexity and cost, whilst also reducing the flow pumping requirements. Typical SLFB electrolytes offer up to 40 W h kg-1 of storage, with performance on the 100 cm 2 electrode scale reaching 90% charge and 80% voltage efficiencies across 100 cycles; however the SLFB has also been tested on the 1000 cm 2 electrode, four-cell stack scale. This review considers the SLFB, highlighting important developments and discussing remaining problems. In particular, methods to achieve effective stripping of lead dioxide at the positive electrode and to prevent lead dendrites at the negative electrode in order to prevent contact between the deposits, and thus shorting, are explored. A detailed understanding of the effect of Pb(II) and methanesulfonic acid concentration on the physical electrolyte properties is presented, and possible improvements to the electrodes and electrolyte composition in terms of additives are discussed in order to improve cell efficiency and longevity. Also, the importance of cell design in preventing the failure mechanisms and therefore achieving a high performance is highlighted. Studies on mathematical modelling and cycling simulation are also reviewed. Continuing research needs are listed and a forward look to future developments is taken.

A novel multicriteria sustainability investigation of energy storage systems

“…These supplementary components also increase the energy requirements of flow batteries, which, as a result, decreases overall efficiency. In addition, flow batteries have larger space requirements because of their supplementary equipment …”

“…In addition, flow batteries have larger space requirements because of their supplementary equipment. 31 There are two types of flow batteries, which are hybrid and redox. Hybrid flow batteries have a battery electrode as the working electrode and a fuel cell electrode as the counter electrode.…”

Electrochemical Behavior of Ti3C2Tx MXene in Environmentally Friendly Methanesulfonic Acid Electrolyte

“…Aqueous solution of MSA does not involvea ny dangerous volatile chemicals under normal conditions. [20] Therefore, we have investigated the electrochemical behavior of Ti 3 C 2 T x in aqueous and neat ionic liquid MSA. [18] The conductivity of MSA is comparable to other strong acids such as H 2 SO 4 and hydrochloric acid.…”

“…MSA is also among the most suitablee lectrolytes in redox flow batteries. [20] Therefore, we have investigated the electrochemical behavior of Ti 3 C 2 T x in aqueous and neat ionic liquid MSA. We demonstrate that MSA is ap romising greener alternative electrolyte for supercapacitors.…”

The separator-divided soluble lead flow battery

“…The growth of lead dendrites, lead dioxide creep, and sloughing of material from each electrode deposit can result in electrical contact, shorting the cell, while insoluble lead oxide sludge can form at the positive electrode [8]. A detailed review of the SLFB has recently been published [11]. Dividing the cell allows for tailoring of the half cells individually [12].…”