Developmental programming: Cumulative effects of increased pre-hatching corticosterone levels and post-hatching unpredictable food availability on physiology and behaviour in adulthood

Abstract

Prolonged exposure to stress during development can have long-term detrimental effects on health and wellbeing. However, the environmental matching hypothesis proposes that developmental stress programs physiology and behaviour in an adaptive way that can enhance fitness if early environments match those experienced later in life. Most research has focused on the harmful effects that stress during a single period in early life may exert in adulthood. In this study, we tested the potential additive and beneficial effects that stress experienced during both pre- and post-hatching development may have on adult physiology and behaviour. Japanese quail experienced different stress-related treatments across two developmental life stages: pre-hatching corticosterone (CORT) injection, post-hatching unpredictable food availability, both pre- and post-hatching treatments, or control. In adulthood, we determined quails' acute stress response, neophobia and novel environment exploration. The pre-hatching CORT treatment resulted in attenuated physiological responses to an acute stressor, increased activity levels and exploration in a novel environment. Post-hatching unpredictable food availability decreased adults' latency to feed. Furthermore, there were cumulative effects of these treatments across the two developmental stages: quail subjected to both pre- and post-hatching treatments were the most explorative and risk-taking of all treatment groups. Such responses to novel environments could enhance survival in unpredictable environments in later life. Our data also suggest that these behavioural responses may have been mediated by long-term physiological programming of the adrenocortical stress response, creating phenotypes that could exhibit fitness-enhancing behaviours in a changing environment.

Developmental stress: evidence for positive phenotypic and fitness effects in birds

“…A recent study by Zimmer and Spencer (2014) found that developmental stressors had sustained effects on MR and GR receptor mRNA expression in the HPA axis in Japanese quail. These changes support a more efficient negative feedback of the HPA stress response and corroborate previous findings showing an attenuated physiological stress response following prenatal stress (Zimmer et al 2013). In European starlings, prenatal stress decreases stress reactivity, while postnatal stress increases it (Love and Williams 2008b).…”

“…For example, in Japanese quail (Cortunix japonica), prenatal and postnatal stressors have different effects on adult HPA function. Adult quail exposed to prenatal stressors showed a greater attenuation of the CORT response over time compared to control birds, while birds exposed to postnatal stressors did not differ in CORT responses compared to control birds (Zimmer et al 2013). Changes in HPA function in response to developmental stressors may stem from changes in mineralocorticoid (MR) and glucocorticoid (GR) receptors that affect negative feedback of the HPA axis.…”

Reference levels for corticosterone and immune function in farmed saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) hatchlings using current Code of Practice guidelines

“…Similarly, nestling zebra finches treated with CORT exhibited suppressed body size 30 days after hatching but no effect was observed at 60 or 90 days post hatch (Crino et al, 2014). Whilst increased CORT post-hatch may reduce growth, this cost may be offset by other benefits such as increased foraging, aggression, food intake, or increased risk taking behaviour both in early and adult life (Kitaysky et al, 2003;Zimmer et al, 2013). Furthermore, increased CORT in hatchlings may reduce predation risks (see Hayward and Wingfield, 2004).…”

Developmental Stress and Correlated Cognitive Traits in Songbirds

“…Among others, one important variable that is inconsistent between studies is the timing of developmental stress and the time at which behaviors are assessed. The timing of stress during development is an important source of variation in offspring behavior, with both prenatal and postnatal stress (as well as the time within those stages) having potentially different behavioral outcomes Henriksen, Rettenbacher, & Groothuis, 2011;Krause et al, 2009;Kriengwatana, 2013; but see Zimmer et al, 2013). Furthermore, the time at which behaviors are assessed is also important because behavioral variation between individuals may change across the lifespan, thus making it difficult to detect covariation (Sih & Bell, 2008).…”