Development of the interplay between automatic processes and cognitive resources in reading.

Abstract

An account was tested of the development of the interplay between automatic processes and cognitive resources in reading. According to compensatory-encoding theory, with advancing skill, readers increasingly keep automatic processes from faltering and provide timely, accurate data to working memory by pausing, looking back, rereading, and compensating in other ways when automatic processes fail. Reading skill profiles (e.g., word naming, semantic access, working memory capacity) were obtained from 71 third graders, 68 fifth graders, and 72 seventh graders from a university lab school or a public school (ages 7 to 15; 146 Caucasians, 61 African Americans, 2 Native Americans, 2 Latino Americans). Children participated in an unrestricted reading task (no time or performance pressure) and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 levels of 3 experimental manipulations of restriction on reading: time pressure or no pressure, constant reading rate or variable reading rate, read silently or read aloud. Regression analyses revealed that developmental level and restriction moderated the reading skill level-comprehension relationship, and restriction lowered comprehension when it overwhelmed skills, especially for younger readers. Verbally inefficient readers compensated most often, and older readers compensated most efficiently.

Cognitive efficiency: A conceptual and methodological comparison

“…Retrieval strategies were deemed less effortful, resulting in overall boosts in CE. Studies by Walczyk and colleagues (Walczyk & Griffith-Ross, 2006;Walczyk et al, 2007) found similar effects when using "compensations" (Walczyk & Griffith-Ross, 2006, p. 618) to overcome limitations in background knowledge and working memory capacity to conclude that when time considerations are not important, CE can be achieved through strategy interventions, despite working memory constraints.…”

“…Although the plausibility of performance with no reported effort is improbable, the mathematical properties of each formula render comparison disparate. (1985); (Walczyk & Griffith-Ross, 2006;Walczyk et al, 2007) Second, the formulas differ in regards to score transformation on a common scale. The deviation formula transforms scores while the likelihood model does not.…”

The influence of self-efficacy and working memory capacity on problem-solving efficiency

“…Participants with higher levels of self-efficacy may be more resourceful in the allocation and adaptation of alternative strategies compared to those individuals with lower levels of self-efficacy, and thus solve problems with greater accuracy and efficiency. Walczyk, Wei, Griffith-Ross, Goubert, Cooper, and Zha (2007) described compensatory processes in reading and indicated engaged readers "circumvent automatic processes that fail" (p. 882). We believe motivational variables such as self-efficacy may also help readers utilize compensatory processes that lead to greater problem-solving efficiency.…”

Implementation and effects of explicit reading comprehension instruction in fifth-grade classrooms

“…Moreover, to better isolate the effects of our instructional approach, we tried to statistically control for the potential effects of word recognition and working memory by using those variables as covariates when comparing the intervention group with controls on the outcome measures after the intervention period. The effects of word recognition and working memory on reading comprehension are well documented (for reviews, see Swanson, Howard, & Sáez, 2007;Vellutino, 2003), and there is also reason to believe that strategic processing is influenced by word recognition and working memory, with skilled word recognition and good working memory capacity presumably freeing adequate cognitive resources for reading strategically to comprehend text (Sinatra, Brown, & Reynolds, 2002;Walczyk et al, 2007). Because it is conceivable that skilled word recognition and good working memory capacity also increase students' motivation to read, we included word recognition and working memory as covariates even for reading motivation outcomes.…”