“…The illegal distribution and abuse of illicit narcotics is a continuing scourge on our society and the health of individuals . While detection technologies such as X-ray backscattering and ion mobility spectrometers are useful in laboratory settings, airports and train stations, they are less useful in scenarios such as clandestine laboratories, bars and on the streets, where a portable detection solution is required . Additionally, the emergence of new designer drugs aimed at circumventing legislation and regulations pose a challenge to current drug detection technologies that use spectral libraries to identify the illicit drugs, e.g., portable Raman spectrometers. , Consequently, there is a clear need for a portable sensor that first responders can use to detect suspected illicit drugs at trace levels in environments where drugs are illegally made, distributed, and/or consumed.…”