Detection of salivary alkaline phosphatase levels in smokers, diabetic patients, potentially malignant diseases and oral malignant tumours

Abstract

A BSTRACT Aim: Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is present in human and plays a key role in intracellular destructive processes and cellular damage. It has bicarbonate and phosphate ions, which help in buffering against acids. ALP activity is affected by smoking, which changes pH in oral environment and has harmful effects. Thus, the evaluation of ALP activity of smokers and healthy nonsmoker along with patients who were diabetic, potentially malignant, and malignant was carried out in this study. Materials and Methods: The study took place between 2016 and 2017. A total of 150 smokers, non-smokers, and patients who were diabetic, potentially malignant, and malignant were included. Collection of unstimulated whole saliva was done from each participant, and salivary ALP levels were measured by spectrophotometric assay. Results: Mean salivary ALP levels were significantly higher in smokers compared to those in nonsmokers. Mean ALP levels were also increased in patients who were diabetic, potentially malignant, and malignant compared to those in controls. Conclusion: ALP levels were significantly higher among smokers when compared to a healthy control group. Oral tissue function and side effects among smokers can be evaluated by these salivary enzyme alterations, which can serve as biomarkers for the diagnosis of any disease process. These salivary alterations could potentially be used as biochemical markers for the evaluation and early diagnosis. The higher levels were also found in patients who were diabetic, potentially malignant, and malignant, and ALP levels may also be used as biomarkers for the evaluation of the disease process.

Evaluation of Salivary Alkaline Phosphatase and Glutathione Peroxidase Levels in Diabetic and Nondiabetic Participants With and Without Smoking Habits

“…[ 24 ] Almost all of the previous studies have shown increased ALP levels due to inflammation in smokers with diabetes. [ 4 13 14 ] However, the trend is contradictory to the findings of our study revealed lower ALP levels in smokers with diabetes. This may be due to the combined effect of the smoking habit in diabetic conditions have suppressed the immune system that reduced the production of ALP in smokers with diabetes.…”

“…[ 9 ] Owing to diabetes, damaged cells of periodontal tissues consistently release ALP into the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) and saliva. [ 4 6 ] Previous studies have shown significantly increased levels of GCF, serum, and salivary ALP in chronic periodontitis,[ 6 8 9 10 11 ] smokers and tobacco chewers with diabetes,[ 4 9 11 12 13 14 ] and oral malignant diseases. [ 4 11 13 ] Among these, few studies have been conducted, mostly in smokers with diabetes and periodontitis.…”

“…[ 4 11 13 ] Among these, few studies have been conducted, mostly in smokers with diabetes and periodontitis. [ 4 13 14 ] Hence, the status of ALP in smokers with diabetes alone is relatively sparse. In DM, an increase in the free radicals production or decrease in the antioxidant activity leads to oxidative stress.…”

The Impacts of Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Saliva Flow-Rate and Metabolic Data: A Systematic Review

“…ALP can be a salivary biomarker of periodontal diseases and caries ( 46 ), as it interferes in the balance of the remineralization-demineralization cycle since it is primarily involved in calcium and phosphate binding ( 47 ). It seems that the function of ALP relatively depends on the salivary pH and buffering capacity ( 48 ). Khalighefar et al ( 28 ) reported that ALP rebounds during the middle of Ramadan compared to BR.…”

An Exonuclease I-Aided Turn-Off Fluorescent Strategy for Alkaline Phosphatase Assay Based on Terminal Protection and Copper Nanoparticles

“…So ALP levels in the serum may be an effective biomarker in medical diagnosis [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Furthermore, Prakash et al have recently found that the level of ALP in saliva (readily accessible, safe, and noninvasive body fluid) may be able to serve as an early biomarker for diabetes mellitus and some potentially malignant tumors [ 12 ]. In addition, ALP is capable of generating signals for the analytes by conjugating to streptavidin or the second antibody in the biological analysis, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), histochemical staining, and aptamer-based assay [ 13 , 14 ].…”