Depressive Symptoms and Economic Outcomes of Low‐Income Women: A Review of the Social Causation, Social Selection, and Interactionist Hypotheses

Abstract

We review research that connects depression and depressive symptoms to employment and economic factors for low-income women. Women who have low incomes and are unemployed or underemployed are vulnerable to mental health distress. The strain of balancing work and family life can be exacerbated by poor psychological health or nonsufficient economic resources. Research on the barriers that impede self-sufficiency can lead to policies that improve the economic and psychological health of low-income populations. The discussion is framed by contrasting evidence for three theoretical perspectives: the social causation, social selection, and interactionist (bidirectional) hypotheses. The only causal relation reported is an effect of increased income on reduced depressive symptoms. Yet strong associations are found among psychological distress, earnings, employment stability, income, and job characteristics. The effects of programs to increase employment and the benefits of (and barriers to) depression treatment are also discussed. A bidirectional or interactionist perspective best conceptualizes the relationship between depression and economic factors. The reported negative effects of both poor mental well-being and low-quality employment suggest the need for stronger policies in the areas of mental health and work supports. We present policy recommendations addressing mental health treatment and outreach, employment placement, and workplace flexibility.

Relationships Among Intimate Partner Violence, Work, and Health

“…It must also be acknowledged that with correlational data, where causality cannot be inferred, other relationships may be driving results; for example, it may be that people with poorer general health are less likely to find work, and these financial and health stresses may put them at risk of more, or at least more severe, IPV. In short, multiple types of mediating, moderating, and bidirectional relationships are likely at play (Adams, Bybee, et al, 2013; Bell, 2003; Gupta & Huston, 2009), and further research is required to determine directionality of effects. Moreover, although we were able to posit that impacts of IPV in the workplace may be an indication of more severe abuse overall, this is an inadequate assessment of abuse severity (Johnson, 2010).…”

Does job stability mediate the relationship between intimate partner violence and mental health among low‐income women?

“…Previous studies on the intersections among IPV, employment, and mental health have approached the issue from a healthy worker perspective; that is, researchers have focused on understanding mental health as a barrier to sustained employment for survivors of abuse (Chandler, Meisel, Jordan, Rienzi, & Goodwin, 2005; Corcoran, Danziger, & Tolman, 2004; Crowne et al, 2011; Helfrich, Fujiura, & Rutkowski-Kmitta, 2008; Mascaro, Arnett, Santana, & Kaslow, 2007). In reality, the association between women's employment and mental health is likely bidirectional (Gupta & Huston, 2009). In other words, while mental health problems can be a significant barrier to employment, there is also evidence suggesting that employment may play an important role in influencing the mental health of survivors.…”

“…The work-benefits framework suggests that employment may have beneficial mental health effects to the extent that it provides women with greater opportunities for financial resources, power and a sense of control over their lives, social support and connectedness, as well as self-esteem and a social identity (Ali & Avison, 1997; Blustein, 2008; Davies & McAlpine, 1998; Gupta & Huston, 2009; Repetti, Matthews, & Waldron, 1989; Rothman, Hathaway, Stidsen, & deVries, 2007). Numerous studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between low-income women's employment and psychological well-being.…”

Economic Hardship, Parents’ Depression, and Relationship Distress among Couples With Young Children

“…The demands and challenges of parenting a young child can increase stress, which elevates risks for psychological distress (Evenson and Simon 2005; Nomaguchi 2012; Umberson, Pudrovska, and Reczek 2010) and can adversely affect children and the health of the whole family (Child Trends 2014). Moreover, depression can decrease productivity, incapacitating individuals in ways that limit economic well-being by decreasing employment opportunities, work hours, and household income (Ennis, Hobfoll, and Schroder 2000; Gupta and Huston 2009). At the same time, economic instability may lead some parents to become frustrated and emotionally overwhelmed.…”